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Signed (student author) _ Signed (faculty advisor) Signed (2d advisor, if appu"m"'"'J Thesis title Unreasonable Ethics: A Socratic Insight into Gandhian Ethics By Isaac Maze-Rothstein Sam Crane 1 A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelors of Arts with Honors in Political Science Williams College Williamstown, MA May 25,2014 "It is generally foolhardy to write about Gandhi, not only because you are never certain you've got him right, but because you are almost sure to have h1m wrong." -Akeel Bilgrami1 When I look out at what commentators have said about the generation of twenty somethings in the United States, many suggest that this generation is politically apathetic and believe that they can live apolitical lives. Having worked on political campaigns, having seen what individual leaders and collective organizations can accomplish on policy change, I wonder if there is a way to change the framing of political engagement so that it is seen as part of living well-as important as fmancial security, loving family, and friends. While institutional change can play a large role, I am more fascinated by leaders that have inspired political mobilization. People such as the Dalai Lama, Nelson Mandela, and Martin Luther King Jr. come to mind as leaders Lama explained that Gandhi's tactics of non-violence alone are not what attracted the Dalai Lama. He also found Gandhi's underlying philosophy very 1 Bilgrami, Akeel. "Gandhi's Integrity." Raritan 21.2 (20 11 ): 48-67. Print. p 1 2 Gyatso, Tenzin. "The 14th Dalai Lama Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech." Speech. 1989 Nobel Peace Prize. 10 Dec. 1989. Web. 28 Oct. 2013. useful.3 In 1999, Nelson Mandela described Gandhi as "the archetypal anti-colonial revolutionary" and the creator of "the only complete critique of advanced industrial society."4 Mandela explained how Gandhi critiques and rejects Adam Smith, Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, and Sigmund Freud all on · philosophic grounds. Mandela also diverged from Gandhi's tactics by using violence, but still honored and admired him as a leader. Similarly, Martin Luther King Jr. wrote on the importance of Gandhian philosophy: It was in this Gandhian emphasis on love and nonviolence that I discovered the method for social reform I had been seeking . . . The intellectual and moral satisfaction that I failed to gain from the utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill, the revolutionary methods of Marx and Lenin, the social-contract theory of Hobbes, the 'back to nature' optimism of Rousseau, and the superman philosophy ofNietzsche, I found in the nonviolent resistance philosophy of Gandhi.5 Each of these leaders cited Gandhi as one of their major inspirations. While they all were deeply effected by Gandhi's tactics, they were also clear that his philosophy was as important and relevant to their work. The Puzzle: The logical question is, what was extraordinary about Gandhi's philosophy and leadership? Given this question, I wish to explore the nexus of 3 "The Dalai Lama Receives Mahatma Gandhi International Award in Bodh Gaya." His Holliness the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet. The Office of His Holliness the Dalai Lama, 4 Jan. 2012. Web. 3 Nov. 2013. 4 Mandela, Nelson. "The Sacred Warrior. " Time Magazine 31 Dec. 1999: n. pag. Web. 28 Oct. 2013. 5 King, Martin Luther. Stride toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story. Boston: Beacon, 1986. Print. p. 84-45 Therefore, I want to situate Gandhi in the Western cannon of political philosophy. I will compare Socrates to Gandhi because he claimed Socrates one of the first satyagrahis-a person who practices Gandhi's form of political-spiritual activism-and because later scholars have commented on Gandhi will go as far to 6 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print p 25, 71, 116 7 Parel, Anthony. Gandhi's Philosophy and the Quest for Harmony. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. Print. p 14 8 Puri, Bmdu. "Gandhi's Translation of the 'Apologia': An Unexplored Dialogical Space." Journal of the Indian Council of Philosophical Research 26.2 (2009): 47-72. Print. 4 say that his audience "must learn to live and die like Socrates."9 Other scholars observe that Gandhi "is no doubt the Socrates of modem India.'"0 These comparisons are striking and deserve further exploration. My hope is that by creating a systematic comparison between Gandhian and Socratic ethics I might find some insights into the qualities that comparison to Socrates, I believe the juxtaposition will help me to clarify the Gandhian framework. Other thinkers have recently made similar comparisons between Gandhi and the Stoics and Buddhism as methods to shed light on Gandhi's framework. 11 By the completion of this analysis I should be able to make claims about the qualities that Gandhian ethics values and what can be Which Gandhi? I need to pick specific periods during Gandhi's life to explore because his thoughts changed over time in response to his specific circumstances.12 Thus, looking over an extended period of time Gandhi would appear to contradict himself as his ideas evolved.13 The basic structure of Gandhi's ethics, however, remained relatively similar during both periods: there are a set of qualities of mind or virtues that enable the achievement of swaraj.14 I am interested in seeing how his ethical system develops with time and observing how its relationship to the Socratic framework changes. Therefore I will analyze two case studies during two political campaigns: Gandhi's effort in South Africa and the Salt March. I will be relying primarily on The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi for my source material. During each of these periods, Gandhi wrote a sustained synthesis of his ethical thought. I will trace his thinking during each period to these two works: Hind Swaraj and his meditations on the Satyagraha Ashram vows. These syntheses frame Gandhi's ethics as the pursuit of a spiritual understanding of swaraj and not efficacious political calculations for liberating India.15 I therefore accept his claim that his political motivations are 12 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University ofNotre Dame, 1989. Print. p 153 13 Chatterjee, Margaret. Gandhi's Religious Thought. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1983. Print. p 3 14 Chatterjee, Margaret. Gandhi's Religious Thought. Notre Dame, IN: University ofNotre Dame, 1983. Print. p 160 15 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p xx. Gandlii, Mohandas. "The Story of a Soldier of Truth." Collected Works of Mohandas Gandhi. Vol. 8. [Delhi] : Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, subservient to his spiritual quest. 16 I will situate these arguments in their historic contexts because Gandhi's thought was responding to his specific circumstances.17 My method, however, leads me to focus primarily on Gandhi's thoughts over his actions. This choice is based to my interest in Gandhi's motivation for action and therefore the way he structured his ethics. I agree with other scholars that studying his ideas in the abstract was not the way Gandhi wanted others to approach his philosophy, but this still allows me to privilege his thoughts so long as they are in context.18 The two case studies will give me the chance to explore Gandhi's ideas. The first time period, June of 1907 to December of 1909, was when Gandhi first engages in political protest-a method he termed satyagraha-in response to laws against Indians and other Asians in South Africa. Furthermore, Gandhi translated Socrates' Apology into Gujarati for his weekly newspaper shortly after the invention of the term satyagraha in 1908.19 This is his first successful campaign, and it makes him almost a celebrity when he returns to India. It also is during this period that he wrote Hind swaraj, his treatise on political action in India using the form of a dialogue. In it, he outlined his vision for an independent Indian state, his ethics, and why his method was only way forward.20 This period was the beginning of his political Govt. of India, 1958. N. pag. Print. p 40 16 Iyer, Raghavan. The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. p 93 17 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989. Print. p 153 18 Chatteijee, Margaret. Gandhi's Religious Thought. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1983. Print. p I 19 Puri, Bindu. "Gandhi's Translation of the 'Apologia': An Unexplored Dialogical Space." Journal of the Indian Council of Philosophical Research 26.2 (2009): 47-72. Print. p 49 20 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: career and when he developed much of his ethical thought.21 The second case is from January to October of 1930. During this period he marched to the sea and started the Salt satyagraha before being sent to prison in May. At this point he had lived in India for almost two decades, built up his power across the country, and changed some the methods of satyagraha and swaraj.22 During his time in prison, he sent a weekly meditation to his ashram on the communal vows and their significance for a living a moral life. The change in power, location, and the sustained synthesis on his ethical framework make this an ideal period for comparison to his time in South Africa. Through this process I will arrive at definitions of the key concepts for his ethical framework in each period. Then I will compare where they have similarities and differences to Socrates' as well as the change over time. I will then be able to step back and show what Gandhi values as well as what we can glean for this when thinking about political activism in America. Which Socrates? There also are questions related to Socrates. Research shows that Gandhi read Plato's character of Socrates through the Crito, Phaedo, and Apologia.23 I rely on John Cooper's Plato's Complete Works for my translation Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 71-72 21 lyer, Raghavan. The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. p 9 22 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989. Print. p 153 23 Purl, Bindu. "Gandhi's Translation of the 'Apologia': An Unexplored Dialogical Space." Journal of the Indian Council of Philosophical Research 26.2 (2009): 47-72. Print. 48 of these dialogues.24 Throughout my analysis I have chosen to use Gandhi's understanding of Socrates to construct my analysis of Socrates' ethical system. In this sense, I am reading Socrates over Gandhi's shoulder and trying to develop a theory from Gandhi's view of Socrates. Gandhi believed that Socrates' speeches "were committed to writing by his companion, the celebrated Plato."25 Gandhi believed that these dialogues are accurate representations of Socrates, and therefore did not believe that Plato was trying to use the character of Socrates as a mouthpiece. In the same vane, Gandhi would not consider setting as a dramatic device, but rather as a description of events as they actually unfolded. In short, the character of Socrates portrayed in only the Crito, Phaedo, and Apologia is the one that Gandhi understood as Socrates. Therefore, this is the character of Socrates that I wish to explore.26 Given the extensive research on how to read these dialogues, I want to be explicit about my method for understanding Socrates' meaning in these works. Throughout the Apology, Socrates consistently emphasizes the importance of speaking the entire truth. 27 By the entire truth, he includes that one should not disguise or hide anything regardless of how shameful it is. 28 He chooses at times to be honest even when he might have been given a lesser 24 I have chosen this translation after consultation with Keith McPartland. There are times where I turn to another translation because this was the one I had been using befor speaking with Prof. McPartland 25 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 8, p 173 26 I am not looking at trying to understand which part of these ideas are Plato's or really Socrates'. While an import debate, it is not relevant for the content of this analysis. 27 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper.Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 21, 23, 29; 22a, 24a, 31c 28 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 22, 23; 22c, 24a sentence by playing to the jury's sensibilities such as when he chooses not to bring his family before the jury for his sentencing.29 Therefore, I understand him to be honest. This raises questions related to the places where he appears to contradict himself especially surrounding his claims to ignorance. Understanding Socratic ignorance is especially salient in determining how to reconcile his claims to deJinitions of virtues with his claims that only gods can know the virtues.3° From these dialogues, my understanding is Socrates' claim to ignorance is based on his inability to live a perfectly moral life and his inability to teach these virtues to others. 31 Therefore, it is possible for Socrates to have working defmitions of the virtues and be striving to act on those understandings even if he does not know them well enough to teach them or live up to them perfectly. I also accept that context, both within the dialogues and whom Socrates is speaking to, is highly relevant for how he frames his points.32 Interestingly, much of the defmitions of ethics occur at the completion of a line of argument suggesting that they are the syntheses of the discussion. As I have done with the previous example in the Apology, I will strive to situate his framework in the context of the particular argument and how I understand his relationship to the audience. The exception is when I reference multiple points in a dialogue or across dialogues to make a claim because I assume that the same claim 29 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 31, 34c-d 30 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 22, 23a-b 31 Bussanich, John, and Nicholas D. Smith, eds. The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. London: Continuum, 2013. Print. p 102 32 White, James Boyd. "Platos Crito: The Authority of Law and Philosophy." Acts of Hope: Creating Authority in Literature, Law, and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1994. 3-44. Print. p 6 interpretation of Gandhi's understanding. Not only does this impact my way of interpreting the Platonic texts, but it also impacts how I understand Gandhi. There are times in South Africa and India where I will not emphasize his blind Web. 24 Nov. 2013. The Corpus 34 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 94 35 Sorabji, Richard. Gandhi and the Stoics: Modern Experiments on Ancient Values. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. Print. p 151 12 The literature on Gandhi is immense. Many scholars have focused on one of three dimension of Gandhi: Gandhi the historic figure, Gandhi the politician, or Gandhi the man. Scholars focusing on Gandhi as a historic figure have worked on biographies of his life and his relationship to other public figures. Those focusing on Gandhi the politician have looked at what his tactics were and why they worked. 36 Those who have focused on Gandhi the man have looked at his relationship to family, sexuality, and friends. In comparison to these large categories of scholarship, there has been very little written about Gandhi the philosopher. 37 Within this category there have been even fewer analyses that seek to situate Gandhian ethics in a comparative framework. While I draw from the wider literature throughout my argument, here I will first explore the other frameworks comparing Gandhian ethics to other philosophers and how these are significant to my analysis. I then turn to how Gandhian scholars generally understand his method of satyagraha. In The Virtue ofNon-Violence, Nicholas Gier compares Gandhi to a Buddhist framework. Gier claims that Gandhi's exemplars better fit with the ideal of Mahayana Buddhism, a Bodhisattva, rather than the ideal of Hinduism.38 While I fmd this illuminating, it is not as helpful for understanding Gandhi's ethics as Socrates'. Gandhi required a belief in God in order to engage in satyagraha-his method of nonviolent activism. As a 36 Iyer, Raghavan. The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. p. 5 37 It is striking how many authors mention how little Gandhi's thought is studied. This might be in no small part because of Gandhi's relationship to creationing a cult or emphasizing that his actions matter more than his writings. 38 Gier, Nicholas F. "Gandhi and Mahayana Buddhism." The Journal of Oriental Studies 35.2 (1996): 84-105. Print. p 84 13 result, he believed that Buddhists and Jains would not be able to practice it to its fullest extent.39 In essence this is where I fmd Geir's framework lacking. Gier, however, has developed a strong framework for enumerating Gandhi's virtues.40 Gier explains these by showing how Gandhi used vows as a means to cultivate different virtues and move closer to swaraj.41 I will draw from this in showing that Gandhi's mediation on vows in 1930 are also meditations on virtues. In Gandhi and the Stoics: Modern Experiments on Ancient Values, Richard Sorabji explores the connection between Gandhi and the Stoics. Sorabji has done a brilliant job of teasing out many of the similarities between these thinkers. Nevertheless, I do not find Sorabji's case well laid out when it comes to his comparison to Gandhi's political philosophy. While Sorabji has identified the tenets in Stoic thought that could become a means for political activism, I agree with Isiah Berlin that the political emphasis was not fully realized in stoicism.42 On this particular point, he does not show that Gandhi resonates more with the Stoics than with Socrates. Many of Sorabji's points of comparison will be useful for my comparative structure. The most closely aligned work that I have found to my project is a piece on Gandhi's translation of the Apologia. This was done by Bindu Puri in "Gandhi's Translation of the 'Apologia': An Unexplored Dialogical Space." While illuminating, Purl's project differs from my own in a few substantive 39 Gandhi, Mohandas. Non-violent Resistance. Ed. Bharatan Kumarappa. New York: Schocken, 1951. Print. p 364 40 Gier, Nicholas F. The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi. Albany: State University of New York, 2004. Print. pp 129-130 41 Gier, Nicholas F. The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi. Albany: State University of New York, 2004. Print. p 127 42 Sorabji, Richard. Gandhi and the Stoics: Modern Experiments on Ancient Values. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. Print. p 190 ways. He does not compare how close Gandhian ethics were to Socratic ethics would communicate and this leads to a different way of framing the contrast. It is within this conversation that I wish to proceed by exploring how others have understood Gandhian satyagraha. I do this because it sheds light on how satyagraha should be framed as a form of ethical education both by those. This is essential when thinking about what should be considered as part way it transforms the conununities or countries of the satyagrahis. Both points of view shed light on Gandhi's statement, satyagraha "is an all-sided sword; it can be used anyhow; it blesses him who uses it and against whom it is used. "48 I see both these perspectives shedding light on how it leads to ethical transformation. The rationale for satyagraha as means to rights is premised on many of Gandhi's own words, actions and analysis. In Hind swaraj, he wrote that For Gandhi, "real rights are the result of the performance of duty."53 In this sense, human rights are made possible by members of a community following their duties. When asked about creating a charter of human rights in 1940, Gandhi suggested that there should be "a charter of the Duties of Man (both D and M capitals) and I promise that the rights will flow as spring follows winter."54 In 1947, he was more specific on this point: "As a matter of fact the proper question is not what the rights of a citizen are, but rather what constitutes the duties of a citizen."55 Rights are merely the benefits that result from a community of individuals following their duties, and Gandhi believed that duties should be focused on over rights. 56 Returning to his specific language about satyagraha with this understanding of rights, his words describe how one earns rights. When he wrote, "passive resistance is a method for securing rights by personal suffering," he meant satyagraha is the method for enabling individuals to grow through suffering, where necessary, to be able to fulfill their duty. This is supported by Gandhi's understanding that each satyagraha campaign was designed to help strengthen the satygrahis and broaden their ability to organize. 57 When Anthony Parel writes that through satyagraha, "Gandhi sought to secure rights in a non-violent way," this is more accurately understood as a means of preparing individual through enacting the necessary 53 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 79 54 Ibid. p I 06 55 Ibid p 107 56 Sorabji, Richard. Gandhi and the Stoics: Modern Experiments on Ancient Values. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. Print. p 107 57 Erikson, Erik H. Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence. New York: Norton, 1969. Print. p 365 17 perform the duties necessary for the benefits that come with rights. Gandhi consistently explained that duties take precedence over the resultant rights. 59 How then does Gandhi want satyagrahis to be changed by this process of self suffering? I find the answer in Gandhi's evaluation of character development: satyagraha is "a means of ethical education."60 Gandhi believed that the most important part of any educational system is character building. 61 He also saw that satyagraha depends on "capital in the shape of character."62 Given that each campaign is designed to enable more effective campaigns in the future, each one is also an educational tool in the form of suffering that forces character building}3 Over time, Gandhi developed and changed his thinking on what specific aspects of character or virtues need to be cultivated to offer satyagraha, but he was always clear that he believed all the virtues can be deduced from the pursuit of truth.64 Authors such as Nicholas Gier point out that there is a certain contradiction if Gandhi wants people to cultivate their character, but also believes that they need to follow vows. If following vows is prioritized over 58 Parel, Anthony. Gandhi's Philosophy and the Quest for Harmony. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. Print. p 96 59 See footnotes 10, 11, and 12 60 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 7. p vi 61 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 100 62 Chakrabarty, Bidyut. Social and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi. London: Routledge, 2006. Print. p 21 63 See footnote 57 (Erikson) 64 Gier, Nicholas F. The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi. Albany: State University of New York, 2004. Print. p 127 character building, satyagraha is premised on an ethics of duties over virtues. 65 Other authors have shown that Gandhi could be convinced of flexibility of some vows if there was a compelling reason to break it. 66 This illustrates that simply following a vow was not always Gandhi's top priority. In this context, Gier shows that Gandhi's vows are a voluntary tool to help cultivate the virtues that he thinks are essential for political satyagraha.67 In this sense they are tools for purifying the way we act and realizing our potential.68 This explanation helps show why taking vows and asking others to do the same is consistent with Gandhi's emphasis on virtues and why he could be flexible if a vow is not appropriate for a situation. The vows point to what virtues he wanted people to develop in each campaign. Comparing the vows he takes as well as those he asks others to take will shed light on what virtues he thinks are important for the ability to engage in political satyagraha. Stepping back, we can see that satyagraha transforms the satyagrahis. It was designed to change their characters through cultivating specific virtues as well as their ability to organize. Vows are used as a ethical tool in this process. This explains the ways in which satyagraha blesses those engaged it. To show how it blesses those who are impacted by it, I will explore satyagraha as a tool in dialogue for pursuing truth. The evidence for this outlook is found in the definition of satyagraha rooted in ahimsa-generally translated as non-violence, satya or truth, Gandhi's perspective on reason, and 65 Ibid p 125 66 Chatterjee, Margaret. Gandhi's Religious Thought. Notre Dame, IN: University ofNotre Dame, 1983. Print. p 69 67 Gier, Nicholas F. The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi. Albany: State University of New York, 2004. Print. p 127 68 Gandhi, Mohandas. Non-violent Resistance. Ed. Bharatan Kumarappa. New York: Schocken, 1951. Print. p 38 cannot be certain that what they believe to be true is completely accurate. 70 As a result of this humility, a dialectic can be created between the different perspectives during the conversation that enables both parties to see the other's He believed that "man is not capable of knowing absolute truth and, therefore, party's perspective.78 In this sense it is "surgery of soul" because it transforms the adversary's soul to see past his or her own self interest. 79 As an extension of this reason, he concluded that the only way to get at UP, 1973. Print. p 270-271; see endnotes for dates purify all parties.83 Specifically, the purification of improving individual and community ethics. Thus, satyagraha improves one's ethical development. 84 This interpretation is significant when thinking about swaraj as the goal of Gandhi's ethical project; satyagraha could be the means for swaraj. The road map My next chapter will explore the means-ends relationships for Socrates and Gandhi. Gandhi speaking about the virtues almost exclusively in terms of enabling one to practice satyagraha. In order to show that the virtues enable swaraj, I need to show that satyagraha is the means to swaraj. In the secondary literature, there is disagreement about whether this is the correct understanding. In this chapter I will also present my understanding of the Socratic framework including how I interpret eudaimonia and the virtues. I choose to take a whole chapter to do this because there are many opposing interpretations of concepts from Hinduism, Gandhi's lexicon, and Socrates' virtues. In clearly defining these terms as well as situating them within the larger means-ends relationship I will be able to proceed to the comparison between the two thinkers. The third and fourth chapters will delve into Gandhi's thought from 1907 to 1909 and 1930 respective. In both chapters, I will first explore how Gandhi defines his virtues as well as his notion of swaraj. These ideas will be 83 Gandhi, Mohandas. Non-violent Resistance. Ed. Bharatan Kumarappa. New York: Schocken, 1951. Print. p 149-150 84 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 9, p 84 22 situated in his historical context in order to add texture to my interpretations. I will then compare these notions to the corresponding concepts in Socratic ethics. In addition, in chapter four I will also discuss how Gandhi has changed over time relative to Socrates. The conclusion will consider what we can draw from this analysis in constructing an ethics that incorporates political activism as part of living well in the United States today. My hope is that one of Martin Luther King Jr.'s, Nelson Mandela's, and the Dalai Lama's inspirations can provide the necessary guidance. Chapter 2: Considering Socratic and Gandhian Means and Ends This chapter explores the framework that I use for comparing Gandhi and Socrates. The question I am working to answet;"-to what extent does the Gandhian pursuit of swaraj resemble Socratic pursuit of eudaimonia-is a question of comparing each thinker's means. In order to make this comparison, I need to show that Gandhian means and ends can be mapped onto the same framework as Socratic means and ends. I do this by arguing that satyagraha is the means to arrive at swaraj for Gandhi and the philosophic was of living is the means to eudaimonia for Socrates. This allows for a systematic comparison between Socratic and Gandhian systems of thought and lead to a more nuanced conclusion for understanding what ideas from Gandhian ethics can be incorporated towards political activism and living well. This analysis is also essential because Gandhi very rarely talks about what virtues are essential for swaraj. He does, however, often discuss what is essential for developing the capacities for satyagraha. By illustrating that satyagraha is the means to swaraj, then I can proceed and show that the virtues for satyagraha are essential components in their perfected form in swaraj. Gandhi, furthemwre, has a strong belief that means determine the ends. He wrote, "the means may be likened to a seed, the end to a tree; and there is just the same inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree."85 Thus, by showing that the virtues necessary for satyagraha are the seed, we understand the tree of swaraj. Socrates is a bit more explicit iii showing that the philosopher's ultimate aim is eudaimonia and therefore philosophic engagement can be thought of as the means to eudaimonia. There has been much disagreement in understanding the Socratic method and therefore I want to elaborate my interpretation of Socrates' means-ends relationship. By showing that philosophy is the means to eudaimonia, I will be showing that the virtues developed for practicing philosophy are necessary means to this ideal state. In addition to creating this means-ends comparative framework I will also outline the specific virtues in the Apology, Crito, and Phaedo. Thus, I have three goals in this chapter: showing philosophy is the means to eudaimonia for Socrates, my understanding ofthe virtues of the Socratic framework, and that satyagraha is the means to swaraj for Gandhi. I will not, however, outline Gandhi's specific virtues in this chapter because they change over the two case studies. Socratic Context and the Means-Ends Relationship In order to understand my interpretation of Socrates means and ends in the Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, I will first briefly explain how the different audiences impact my understanding of the claims that Socrates made about his ethical system. In general, his relationship to the audience-whether they are close friends or not-impacted the method that he used to express his ideas. He seemed to use more allegory to illustrate his point among closer companions than when he defended himself at trial. In th(! Apology, Socrates was responding to the indictment of impiety at,1d corruption of the youth. I understand this to be an honest defense of hi life's work and even when it infuriates many people in the city.86 From this I conclude that he was caught in a bind between being honest about what he thought was right and framing his life in a way that was socially acceptable. For example, when he was found guilty, he tried to speak truthfully about what he thought he deserves,· even if it was incendiary before suggesting an alternative assessment. 87 This is my understanding for the context when determining his comments from the Apology. The Crito is a conversation between Socrates and his friend Crito that takes place in Socrates' jail cell. Crito did not hold onto the principles that Socrates had taught him and generally did not seem to be as inclined towards philosophical abstractions as Socrates. 88 Here, Socrates was speaking here to a friend who did not readily grasp the ethical concepts Socrates was asserting. From this, I draw that Socrates used metaphor as a vehicle for the argument because a more philosophically abstract approach would not be accessible to Crito. This is particularly evident in the speech of the laws.89 Socrates' willingness to contradict Crito showed that Socrates was sincere throughout 86 White, James Boyd. "Plato's Crito: The Authority of Law and Philosophy." Acts of Hope: Creating Authority in Literature, Law, and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1994. 3-44. Print. p 35 87 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 32-33, 36d-e 88 White, James Boyd. "Plato's Crito: The Authority of Law and Philosophy." Acts of Hope: Creating Authority in Literature, Law, and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1994. 3-44. Print. p 16 89 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 44-47, 50a-54d the conversation. 90 In the Phaedo, the majority of the dialogue was between Socrates and a few friends who were all fearful about the loss of Socrates and more generally about death. Socrates therefore constructed arguments that were designed to primarily be accessible to his friends while not contradicting anything that he believed. The major point of apparent contradiction in this dialogue is · connected to Socrates' knowledge of the afterlife. In the Apology, he explicitly disavowed any knowledge of "things in the sky or below the earth."91 In the Phaedo, he gave an extended explanation of what he had denied knowledge of during his defense. The way I understand this is by turning to the end of his story of the afterlife. There he was clear that the story of the afterlife was not exactly accurate, but the belief in something like it would be helpful for those who wish to purify their souls.92 Furthermore, in both the Apology and Phaedo, he suggested that there is an alternative where there is nothing after death.93 Thus, this story of the afterlife was not premised on knowledge, but was a useful story for his interlocutors as they thought about how to live their lives. This interpretation reiterates the theme that Socrates used metaphor as a vehicle to explain his beliefs to his friends and enables me to assume Socrates' honesty throughout these dialogues. Now that I have shown generally how I understand the context of each dialogue on Socrates' speech, I will explain my interpretation of Socrates' means-ends relationship . . 90 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 43, 49b · 91 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology.'' Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. · Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 20, 19b-c. 92 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-1 00. Print. p 97, ll 4d-e 93 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. · Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 79, 9l !i-b 27 In each of these dialogues there also are references to the means and ends relationship that are sit,nilar to Gandhi's. In the Apology, Socrates' defense suggests that the means he employs-reason over emotion-determines whether the result will be just.94 At this point in the dialogue, Socrates chose to forgo the traditional use of a loved one's emotional appeals as a rationale for avoiding punishment because he wanted the jury to reach a verdict without "pitiful dramatics."95 I understand this as an example where the end of a just verdict can only be achieved through just means. In the Crito, Socrates' persuaded his friend that the only important determining factor for breaking out of prison is whether the action is just. 96 Socrates did this by showing that life is not worth living unless it is good and that the good life is synonymous with the just life. 97 For him to make the leap that living a good and just life requires just action, it seems hard to separate the means to living, in this case just action, from the end result. My interpretation is that, like Gandhi, the means as a seed and the ends as the tree is an applicable metaphor in this situation. In the Phaedo, Socrates' initially responded to the question why philosophers would be willing to die when they are serving the gods while alive.911 As part of the response, Socrates argued that to truly know something, 94 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 31, 34d-e 95 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 31, 35b 96 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 43, 48c-d 97 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 42, 48a-b 98 Grube, George.M. A., trans.·"Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 55, 63a one must strive towards truth through thought alone.99 Again this shows a life goal, truth, being tied to only one possible means. Taken together with the other instanes, these examples support my contention that Socrates believes that means largely impact, if not determine, the ends .. Now that I have shown that both Socrates and Gandhi believed in a similar means-ends relationship, I will situation how I interpret Socrates means and ends before turning to Gandhi's .. Socratic Eudaimonia Scholars agree that Socrates believed eudaimonia is the goal of all human striving.100 In the Apology and Phaedo, Socrates argued that there is an end to all human striving whereas in the Crito he only focused how to live a good life that is aimed at living justly.101 I do not see these frameworks as mutually exclusive, but rather as different dimensions of the means to eudaimonia. I will return to a more full discussion of justice as a virtue when I work through my interpretation of the virtues. For now, I want to focus on the examples in the Apology and Phaedo to flesh out some of the aspects of eudaimonia. In the Apology, Socrates asserts that he wants others to constantly focus on "wisdom or truth, or the best possible state of your soul."102 This 99 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-1 00. Print. p 57, 66a 100 Cooper, John M. "Socrates." Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge, 2004. · Web. 24 Nov. 2013. 101 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 42, 48b 102 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 27, 29e specific reference is at the moment where he said that he could not give up 'philosophy even if it would save .his life. His lack of self-interest suggests that there is little reason to cnsider that he is lying. Here, we see the pursuit of truth intertwined with developing one's soul. This indicates that developing one's soul could be synonymous with the pursuit of truth. Likewise in the Phaedo, we see truth-that "which is pure, eternal, immortal, and unchanging"-intertwined with the aim of one's life. 103 Looking at the context of this dialogue, Socrates' motivation was for others to practice certain qualities of mind as a means to truth.104 This was his claim by the end of the dialogue, just before preparing to drink the poison. While arguing about one's relationship to death and the nature of the soul, Socrates asserted on multiple occasions that one should pursue the truth.105 He also showed across these arguments that practicing certain qualities of the mind is essential.106 Connecting these pieces of evidence, we see virtues as means to enable knowing truth or wisdom. Integrating the analysis from these dialogues, I see that achieving an understanding of truth requires knowing the virtues such that one is able to live by them and teach them. I believe the arguments can be connected because there are no explicit contradictions in either of the dialogues on the nature of wisdom and virtue. This is the essence of living well or eudaimonia. In this sense, Socratic truth is distinctly ethical because it implies knowing 103 Plato. "Phaedo." Plato s Apology, Crito and Phr.edo of Socrates. Trans. Henry Cary. Ed. Edward Brooks. Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1897. N. pag. Print. 65 104 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 97, 114c 105 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 57, 73; 66b, 84b 106 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 60, 74, 97; 69b, 82d, 115a how to live virtuously, and teach this mode of action to others. Furthermore, this explains how Socrates can both have a framework for the virtues-and thus have working defmitions for them-while not knowing the virtues completely.107 While eudaimonia is the aim, I understand it as more of a north star to be directed towards, rather than something that can be achieved during a human life time. The entire Phaedo focuses on Socrates' belief in the necessity of dying in order to be separated from the body and fully be able to explore truth. 108 He also suggests that those who engage in this pursuit fully, upon death, move to live with the gods as part of this pursuit.109 Given that I believe Socrates gave an allegoric tale of the afterlife, this story is a tool to show that the virtues cannot be perfected while we are alive. Thus, eudaimonia can act as a beacon that causes us to strive in life, but not as something that can be achieved in the here and now. From these interpretations of eudaimonia and the virtues, living ever more virtuously is an essential precondition to achieving eudaimonia. The perfected virtues are necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia, but the perfection of them is not possible while we are alive. While I understand the specifics of the afterlife outlined in the Phaedo as primarily a fable, I see evidence that the general notion of being closer with the gods or noble souls is reiterated in both the Apology and Phaedo. In the Apology, Socrates asserted after his sentence that one possibility for the 107 Bussanich, John, and Nicholas D. Smith, eds. The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates; London: Continuum, 201 3. Print. p 102 108 Plato. "Phaedo." Plato's Apology, Crito and Phredo of Socrates. Trans. Henry Cary. Ed. Edward Brooks. Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1897. N. pag Print. p 71 109Ibid 71 where one can engage with those that are most interested in pursuing the truth or the gods.111 From these references across the texts, I glean that Socrates 32 death."6 The second occurs at the conclusion of the Phaedo as part of the final response to live virtuously.117 I understand both lists outlined in the Phaedo to be a fuller explanation of what it means to care for the soul than either the descriptions in the Crito or the Apology because of the three dialogues this is the one where Socrates explained to his friends why one should live virtuously. Thus, virtues are qualities of the soul-in modem terms habits of the mind-that can be cultivated and enable one to be outstanding or thrive.118 Specifically, the first list in Phaedo includes courage, moderation, justice and wisdom while the second includes "moderation, righteousness, courage, freedom and truth. "119 In order to make a comparison to Gandhi, I synthesize these two into one list. First, both moderation and courage are included in these lists and therefor are not problematic to include among the virtues. Next, there is nothing in these three dialogues that gives a description of righteousness. For the purposes of my comparison to a Gandhian framework, I assume that it is synonymous with justice. 12° Freedom is only referenced as part of a description of moderation in the Phaedo. Here, as Socrates' concluded his defense for why philosophers should not fear death, freedom means not being governed by pleasures or pains.121 This description is challenging to 116 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Worh. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 60, 69b 117 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Worh. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 97, ll5a 118 Neharnas, Alexander. The Art of Living: Socratic Reflections from Plato to Foucault. Berkeley: University of California, 1998. Print. p 78 119 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Worh. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 60, 97; 69b, ll 5a 120 This is supported tangentially by the index that suggests one look up justice for righteousness and vice versa. Otherwise I would not be able to have a working defmition for righteousness. 121 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Worh. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 73, 84a differentiate from the defmition of moderation as not being controlled by desire of pleasures or avoidance of pain. Therefore, I understand freedom to be an aspect of moderation. For the last two virtues, wisdom and truthfulness, I see there being a analytic separation. From these interpretations, the list of virtues for comparison includes moderation, justice, courage, wisdom, and truthfulness. Socratic virtues are shown to be interdependent; if one perfects a virtue one has perfected all the virtues. There are three relationships that show the virtues interdependence. All of these relationships are derived from the Phaedo either at the end of the dialogue as Socrates conclude or when he completes his defense against fearing death. First, Socrates explained in the Phaedo that any of the vittues would be incomplete without having wisdom.122 Thus, they all depend on wisdom for perfection. Second, in order to achieve wisdom one must practice all the virtues. 123 This suggests that while wisdom purifies the virtues, the virtues are necessary for gaining complete wisdom. Third, Socrates also believes that gaining one of the virtues in exchange for giving up another is "fit for salves, without soundness or truth."124 In order to have one of the virtues, one cannot forsake the others; there are no trade off's between virtues. The logical conclusion is that one must work to cultivate them all in order to live a virtuous life. In the secondary literature, the codependency of the virtues is often described as the unity of the virtues. 125 122 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 60, 69b 123 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 97, 114c 124 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 60, 69b 125 Cooper, John M. "Socrates." Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge, 2004. Web. 24 Nov. 2013. Therefore if one has any one virtue in its perfected form, one must necessarily virtues are understood as well as Socrates' actions for understanding the first described an immoderate person as someone "governed by the pleasures."127 Thus, moderation can be thought of as not being motivated by to live.129 While he claimed that it is important not to care at all for bodily desire, given that his children are infants and that his wife is with him when the Crito begins, he did not abstain for sexual intercourse.130 This choice shows an important different between his ethics and Gandhi's. Looking at Socrates' description of the ideal philosopher in the Phaedo, Socrates later suggested that a philosopher should abstain from all pleasures, as well as pains, and never be controlled by the passions. 131 This transpired as Socrates was completing his argument for not fearing death. The mention of pains and the kind of loss associated with suffering underscores a difference from a colloquial definition of moderation that is tied to just controlling the passions. For Socrates, moderation is strongly related to not being motivated by desires or pains. Both of these dimensions of Socratic moderation have a strong resemblance to Gandhi's indifference to suffering and physical pleasure. Justice The analytic structure of Socratic justice is primary developed in the Crito. Justice also has three dimensions: non-harm, helping others and honoring one's community. On an inter-personal scale, justice is related to not wronging others. 132 This description is used as a starting defmition when thinking about whether leaving Athens would be just or unjust. By wronging others, one is in fact hurting oneself by acting unjustly. During his reasoning with Crito about the nature of justice, Socrates went so far as to suggest that 130 Peterson, Sandra. Socrates and Philosophy in the Dialogues of Plato. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011. 2011. Web. 25 Jan. 2014. p 191 131 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100, Print. p 73, 83b 132 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 43, 49b 36 emphasis on purifying the soul and his actions, I assert that part of living justly is helping others as part of self purification rather than just avoiding unjust and that it counts for more among the gods."138 He even says that one should go to battle if the city commands and it cannot be persuaded otherwise. 139 In this sense, while not doing evil to others is important, part of justice is honoring the city. There is a very strong current in this part of Socrates thinking of the need honoring the community one grew up in. This could prove to be a significant connection to some aspects of Gandhian notion of swadeshi or self-reliance. When there is a trade off between the two principles-doing harm to others and doing harm to the city by not following laws-Socrates' actions suggest that is is better to disobey the law and face the consequences than harm others. He chose to disobey direct orders from the rulers of the city on multiple occasions when he felt it went against his understanding of justice. When ten generals were sentenced to be killed, he alone among the Prytanes voted against it even though he could be imprisoned or killed. The government found the generals broke the law, and yet Socrates talks about wanting to act with justice. This interpretation shows that injustice does not mean following the laws under all conditions and there can be laws that are unjust, a central interpretation for comparing Socrates' ideas to Gandhi's deeply activist ethics. 140 This is not in contradiction with Socrates' choice to remain in his cell in spite of Crito's pleas. In the speech of the laws, Socrates showed that he 138 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 45, 51a-b 139 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 45, 51 b-e 140 Grube, George.M. A. , trans. "Apology. " Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 29-30, 32a-e 38 would not leave in part because he specifically opposed exile at trial.141 To accept exile after being sentenced was not a trade off between harming the city and harming others. Rather it was between harming the city and being afraid of being harmed. This is not a compelling argument in the Socratic framework especially given the framework of moderation being opposed to being con. The significance of this analysis is that even when Socrates appears to have argued for always follow the laws, the details of Socrates' defense point to how it is specific only for his case. This points again to understanding Socratic ethics as supporting activism even when it goes against the law. Courage his mission even if he would be sentenced to death, he argues that like when he was asked to fight in war, he was clear that it would be wrong to leave his post for fear of death.142 Choosing otherwise would be cowardice, and therefore the opposite of courage. I assume here that cowardice is the opposite of courage. Therefore, if cowardice means leaving because of a fear of death, courage is connected with not fearing death. 141 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 46, 52c . 142 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 27, 28d-e courage. Socratic courage is defined as being fearless towards death in the Phaedo. For the majority of the Phaedo, Socrates defended how one should not be afraid death and then kills himself with as much dignity as possible. 145 During the argument for why true philosophers should not be afraid of death, he pointed out that when others appear courageous they are in fact only facing limitations and striving to understand reality. Like courage and many of the 143 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 29, 32a 144 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 35, 40c 145 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 55, 99; 63e-64a, 117a-e 146 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 59, 68d he asserted that being called wise is a form of slander because this quality could only be rightly attributed to the gods.147 In this sense, Socratic wisdom comes from being consciousness of not knowing how to live the best life and not having pretensions to know how to teach living. 148 Socrates does not think that human wisdom allows for one to know something is good and explain why. 149 The gods possess this true wisdom of knowing why and how to live well and, in comparison, human wisdom is nothing. 150 Therefore, part of wisdom is knowing the limits of the human capacity to achieve virtues.151 In the Phaedo, wisdom is described as pursuing that "which is pure, eternal, immortal, and unchanging."152 He will later describe this as the "truth ofthings."153 I take this to mean that while circumstances change, the skill set of knowing how to apply the virtues is unchanging. Wisdom, therefore, has from being pious and following the gods' commands because of their access to real wisdom.155 Thus, Socratic wisdom is the ability of know how to live, knowing one's limitations, and an active pursuit of the truth. Truthfulness The of Socratic truthfulness is developed in the Apology. Socrates referenced his desire to be honest with great frequency and this is the essence of being truthful. 156 This type of truthfulness includes not deceiving or hiding anything. 157 He also suggests in the beginning of his defense that when one is speaking one must strive to tell the truth.158 From these references, Socratic truthfulness is honesty. Socrates ends and means in context This analysis of Socrates' ends-eudaimonia-and means-the virtues --enables me to make rich comparisons to similar points in Gandhi's framework and ultimately give me deeper insight into how to understand Gandhian ethics. It is important to remember that I have specifically chosen to focus on how one cultivates these virtues because I do not fmd the comparison to Gandhi's actions fruitful. Again, Socrates' virtues are moderation, justice, courage, wisdom, and truth. The set up between ethical means and ethical 155 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 22, 23b 156 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 21, 22, 23, 29; 22a, 22c, 24a, 3lc, 3le 157 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 22, 23; 22c, 24a 158 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 19, 18a Gandhi's ethics can be fit into the same means-ends relationship. In order to do this I will show that the virtues necessary for satyagraha are the means for achieving Gandhi's ultimate goal of swaraj. I will do this by showing that satyagraha is the means to swaraj and by extension that the virtues necessary for satyagraha are necessary for swaraj. Swaraj as the Ends satyagraha, the comparison to a Socratic framework is much less feasible. UP, 1973. Print. p 348 needs to be clarified. Furthermore, almost all Gandhi's references to the virtues are connected with developing satyagraha, not swaraj. In order for me to claim that the virtues are essential for swaraj, I need to show that satyagraha is the means to swaraj. After outlining the context for swaraj and swadeshi, I will show the various arguments for swadeshi being the means to swaraj. I will then show the alternative interpretation of why swadeshi should be more accurately understood as a virtue and why satyagraha is the means to swaraj. Both swaraj and swadeshi are not invented by Gandhi. The term swadeshi was developed from the partition of Bengal in 1905. It was initially used to indicated the boycott of foreign goods.161 Swadeshi comes from two words, swa meaning "one's own" and desh meaning "the total cultural and natural environment of which one is an inseparable part."162 Gandhi expanded on this concept to mean self-reliance for the individual or self sufficiency for a community or state. 163 Practically for Gandhi this meant Indians should speak Gujarati or Hindi to each other rather than English, make home spun yam and clothes, and buy locally wherever possible. It has connotations of self respect that are rooted in the belief that there are strengths in one's culture that should be emphasized and weaknesses that should be improved upon.164 This concept also places responsibility on the individual to 161 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989. Print. p 57 162 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989. Print. p 57 163 Iyer, Raghavan. The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. p 347 164 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University ofNotre Dame, 1989. Print. p 58 help one's own community first. 165 liberation.167 The spiritual liberation is what Gandhi called "real swaraj. "168 By this he means, "One's rule over one's own mind is real swaraj."169 In all achieved real swaraj and therefore are self-governing. In this sense, real swaraj for a community is only possible once its members have each achieved real swaraj. 173 Gandhi saw this more expansive understanding of swaraj as his goal for India. He also saw that steps that move him closer to that goal are meaningful intermediary goals. Thus, he could claim to aim at the restrictive defmition as a goal because it is part of the process to achieve the much more expansive end of real swaraj for the community.174 Many of the scholars studying Gandhi see swadeshi as the only means that leads to swaraj. Raghavan Iyer writes, "If swaraj is the end, swadeshi is the only legitimate means."175 Bidyut Chakrabarty relies on Iyer's analysis and is in complete agreement. 176 Bikhu Parehk, while developing his own analysis, comes to the same conclusion when he writes, "Gandhi used the term swaraj to describe a society run on the swadeshi spirit."177 This is very strong language because it implies that everything else in Gandhi's life, especially his satyagraha campaigns is either not part of his ultimate end or is part of swadeshi. None of these authors have made the argument that satyagraha is part of swadeshi, however. If, satyagraha is not a component or connected to swadeshi and swadeshiis the only means to swaraj, then satyagraha is divorced from the other two. I now show why I do not fmd this compelling in Iyer's or Parehk's arguments. 173 Iyer, Raghavan. The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. p 353 174 Ibid. p 357 175 Iyer, Raghavan. The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. p 348 176 Chakrabarty, Bidyut. Social and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi. London: Routledge, 2006. Print. p 22 177 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989. Print. p 59 Iyer's argument recognizes that swaraj is based on satya, or truth. He sees that Gandhian swadeshi is based ahimsa, often translated as non-violence or fearlessness.178 He has also made the aims of satyagraha-using ahimsa to pursue truth-as separate from the process of swadeshi leading to real swaraj. He also sees that swaraj is intimately tied to Gandhi's notion of truth.179 The underlying connections between these concepts-that both swadeshi and satyagraha are rooted in ahimsa or that swaraj is connected with truth while satyagraha is the pursuit of truth-makes a less compelling case for satyagraha being separate from swadeshi and swaraja. Furthermore, Iyer does mention that there is a connection between satyagraha and swadeshi. He acnowledges that swadeshi is one of the vows taken by satyagrahis living in Gandhi's ashram who are training to practice satyagraha. He does not explain this vow might implicate the relationship conclusion. He understands swaraj as a quality that an individual or community achieves by having perfected the ethos of swadeshi. He sees swadeshi as self-respect, self-reliance, a11d a sincere desire for self-improvement for the individual as well as his relationship to his community. 183 For Parekh, when all these qualities of swadeshi reach their ideal, they result in a community that has achieved swaraj, and thus the community would live according to "its own truth."184 The primary piece of evidence that he relies on such that we can maintain our separate existence without the presence of the English."186 In other words this is the restrictive defmition of swaraj as 183 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University ofNotre Dame, 1989. Print. p 58 184 Ibid. p 59 185 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1999. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. GandhiServe Foundation. Web. 25 Jan. volume 21, p 280-281 186 Ibid. p 281 48 The alternative interpretations posit swadeshi as one of the necessary virtues for satyagraha and therefore swaraj. There are a two complimentary analyses to show the relationship between satyagraha, swadeshi, and swaraj. The first line of analysis posits the relationship between swadeshi and satyagraha. This is premised on Gandhi's use of vows personally, and for those who followed him, as a means to cultivate various virtues.1 87 Swadeshi is one vow that Gandhi demands of himself and those who follow him. This is supported by Gandhi's conclusion of Hind Swaraj. He wrote: "In order to exert this force [satyagaraha], swadeshi in every sense is necessary."188 Thus, he explained that swadeshi is essential in being able to pursue satyagraha these virtues enable one to better control the mind, the perfection of these virtues would be synonymous with real swaraj for the individual. Looking at some of Gandhi's virtues.from the first campaign in South Africa-fearlessness, chastity, non-possession, and control of the senses-all are related to controlling one's fears or desires.190 Similarly, in the Salt Campaign in India, the virtues are all aimed at gaining control of one's mind. 191 This supports the conclusion that Gandhian satyagraha is the pursuit of Gandhian swaraj. Given the the weaknesses in the arguments for swadeshi and the above evidence for satyagraha being the means for swaraj, I can conclude that satyagraha is the means to swaraj. This enables me to claim that the virtues necessary for satyagraha are also necessary for swaraj. It also enables me to compare Socratic virtues aimed at eudaimonia to corresponding Gandhian virtues aimed at swaraj. Conclusion: In this chapter I have done three things. First, I outlined my understanding of Socratic eudaimonia and illustrated that it was his ends. Second, I proceeded to show my interpretation of the Socratic virtues as his means. Both of these enabled me to place Socrates in the mean-ends framework as a method for comparison to Gandhi. Third, I illustrated how · 190 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Prim. p 94 191 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 41 50 Gandhian satyagraha and the accompanying virtues should be understood as the means to swaraj. This enables me to put Gandhian ethics and swaraj in the same means-ends framework. Taken together, I can now make the comparison between Gandhi's conception of the virtues and swaraj to Socrates' virtues and eudaimonia. I will first compare Gandhi's· frame developed during the campaign in South Africa. fmger printed, and carry an identification card. Gandhi and many others in the Indian community of South Africa associated this with being treated like slaves, criminals, and worse than Black South Africans.193 Gandhi had risen to prominence in the Indian ex-patriot community through his work as a lawyer and by leading a company of Indian stretcher bearers during the Boer war in 1906.194 In January of 1908, he was sentenced to two months in prison. It is during this time that he read Plato's works on Socrates. Just before being admitted to jail he created with the term satyagraha.195 He was let out two weeks into his sentence to negotiate with some of the leaders of South Africa. 196 In April, he began installments of his Gujurati translation of Plato's Apology in his weekly newspaper, Indian Opinion, under the title "Soldier of 192 Wolpert, Stanley A. Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 200 1. Print. p 59-60 193 Wolpert, Stanley A. Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 200 I. Print. p 61, 64 While Gandhi's racism during this period is an important short coming to consider when evaluating his character, I do not focus on it because of the limited bearing it has on his ethical framework. I have not found evidence that during this period he would limit the applicability of his ethics to one race or community. 194 Wolpert, Stanley A. Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001. Print. p 58 195 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Cozlected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications. Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 8, p 23 196 Wolpert, Stanley A. Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 200 I. Print. p 66 52 Truth" and completed it by May. 197 He was sent back to prison for not following the Asiatic Act in February 1909 and was released in May of 1909. The case study concludes in December 1909. At this point he had returned from a deposition in England where he has argued against the Asiatic act to members of Parliament, and has just completed Hind Swaraj, the summation of his political philosophy and ethics.198 Just from this brief history of events there is some Socratic influence on Gandhi's thinking during this time. The question is not simply whether Socrates has an influence, but to what extent does the Gandhian pursuit of swaraj resemble a Socratic pursuit of eudaimonia during this period. To answer this I will trace the Gandhian virtues and swaraj as articulated in Hind Swaraj through this period. In Hind Swaraj, Gandhi has identified four virtues for satyagraha: "observe perfected chastity, adopt poverty, follow truth, and cultivate fearlessness."199 He also describes swadeshi as another essential characteristic for satyagrahis and therefore I include it as a virtue for comparison. After analyzing these different terms, I will compare Gandhi's and Socrates' analytic frameworks. I will first compare swaraj and eudaimonia and then tum to a side by side analysis of both thinkers' virtues. Swaraj 197 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works ofMahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume . 8, p 172 198 Guha, Ramachandra. Gandhi before India. London: Penguin Group, 2013. Print. p 373 199 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Pare!. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 94 central ideas. "200 In other words, these pieces are deigned to provide a moral education. Interestingly, Gandhi wrote, "It can be argued that Ruskin's ideas are an elaboration of Socrates'. Ruskin has described vividly how one who wants to live by Socrates' ideas should acquit himself in the different vocations."201 This is striking because the ftrst sustained reference to Gandhi's no better than hell", and that he knows real swaraj. He believes that political swaraj "is not enough [to secure] the nation's prosperity and happiness" This shows that Gandhi's differentiation between political swaraj or political 200 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications 54 independence and real swaraj.203 Gandhi showed that "Real Swarajya consists in restraint."204 This is swaraj that exists first on a person level. 205 It is exemplified by one "who leads a moral life, does not cheat anyone, does not forsake truth and does his duty ... such a man will enjoy swarajya wherever he may happen to live." In essence real swaraj is personal.206 Real swaraj can also apply to a nation: "A nation that has many such men always enjoys swarajya. ... swarajya is to be achieved by righteous means. It must be real swarajya. It cannot be achieved by violent means or setting up factories."207 This goes against the two major strains of political thought at the time that both proposed independence could only come through copying the British system by setting up factories and either petitions or a violent revolution. 208 Gandhi is setting out a completely different path that 8, p 373 205 Swarajya is synonymous with swaraj. Swajarya is the term in Sanskrit while swaraj is the term in Gujurati. 206 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. Volume 8, p 373 207 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 8, p 373 208 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p xlii-xliii God, or God is nothing but Truth. We come across this idea in every religion."211 This implies that Gandhi's comments on swaraj are a spiritual and moral quest. This is the embryo of his later thinking. He writes this shortly after leaving prison and having read the Socratic dialogues. This is significant in the context of Socrates' frequent references to the pursuit of truth and god. By August 8, 1908 Gandhi connected swaraj to fearlessness for the truth, and restraint. 209 1bid p 373 210 While it also bears an incredible resemblance to platonic language found The Republic, there is no evidence that he has read that dialogue. 211 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 8, p 61 212 1bid. p 430 In October of 1909, Gandhi gave a defmition of swaraj that does not include any of these virtues. He was responding to an extremist who was disparaging of Mr. Gokhale's speech at the Indian National Congress, one of the older generation of moderates in India, Gandhi's friend, and the person many consider to be Gandhi's political guru.213 Gandhi wrote, "Humility, earnestness, thoughtfulness in conduct-these are the foundations of swarajya. To speak out what comes into one's head or to do whatever one likes is mere delirium. "214 While humility will become highly important later in Gandhi's career, this and the other virtues are not emphasized again during this period. I understand this is a response tailored to the specific type of violent, radical thought that Gandhi does not support. These qualities are therefore not philosophically developed like some of the other qualities he suggests for swaraj, but are rhetorically useful as part of his defense of a good friend. After returning from a failed deposition in Britain, Gandhi fully expounded on swaraj in the book, Hind Swaraj. swaraj was given different emphases in Gandhi's English and Gujurati translations. In the Gujurati edition, swaraj is described at the conclusion of the dialogue as "one's rule over one's own mind." In the English translation, Gandhi describes swaraj as "self-rule or self-control."215 The Gujurati addition implies that political liberation is also connected with a Hindu spiritual goal of gaining complete control over one's thoughts. That same context does not exist for many 213 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Pare!. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p lxxxiii, 139 214 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 9, p 45 1 215 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Pare!. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 116 readers of the English translation, primarily the British. They have a cultural lexicon that includes valuing self-restraint. Thus both of these formulations show different aspects of swaraj. The format of the book is in a dialogue between a reader, representing ideas Gandhi disagrees with, and an editor, representing Gandhi's beliefs. At one point, the reader puts forward a definition of swaraj that means making the British leave, having an independent India, and copying as much as possible British institutions.216 This can be done through any means including violence to get the British out. The editor's retort to this understanding is flrst that the outcome would be to make India English. In other words the system created under colonialism will be recreated with achieving independence through this means, but instead of British rulers there will be lndians.217 Political independence is shown not to be sufficient to actually have India be truly free. Gandhi's alternative was that each individual must flrst rule him or her mind. Once this has been achieved, if the people do not support the government, India will become free from British rule and more importantly individuals will be free to rule themselves.218 The editor is explicit that swaraj "is in the palm of our hands. Do not consider this swaraj to be like a dream. Here there is no idea of sitting still."219 This language shows that swaraj can be experienced in this lifetime. It is also not just about meditating or withdrawing from society as is understood in Hinduism. The key to this type of swaraj requires that 2161bid p 26-28 217 1bid. p 27 218 1bid. p 71 219 1bid. p 71 58 individuals gain self control in order to not submit to laws that go against an individual's conscious.220 Thus, while swaraj is connected with the mental state that is the traditional aim of Hinduism, it also requires action in society. Gandhi connected Hindu notions of salvation with self-rule and political freedom.221 Thus, swaraj in this work combines different culturally accessible notions of freedom and salvation. Swaraj is associated with self mastery through bemg able to rule oneself. By achieving swaraj, one can no longer be enslaved by the society one lives in or one's own desires and fears. 222 The notion is that eventually, as many citizens gain this type of freedom, they will withdraw their support by not following laws or institutions deemed unjust. Without that support, the rulers simply cease to be able to act.223 This outline of Swaraj created the connection between political salvation and spiritual development. Furthermore, it can be experienced in this lifetime. I have shown here my understanding of swaraj during this time period. It was developed as part of Gandhi's first major political undertaking and alongside of his introduction to Socrates. And like Socrates, Gandhi believed that virtues must be developed in order to achieve this state. I now will shed light on what Gandhi meant by his virtues of swadeshi, chastity, poverty, fearlessness, and truthfulness. swadeshi 220 Ibid. p 90 22 l .lbis p xvi, xx 222 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p lxi 223 1bid. p 112 Swadeshi comes from two words, swa meaning "one's own" and desh meaning "the total cultural and natural environment of which one is an inseparable part."224 In October 1907, Gandhi wrote on the Sinn Fein movement in Ireland. Gandhi translated Sinn Fried as "ourselves alone" and believed that it "means exactly our swadeshi movement."225 He described swadeshi as including leaving British Parliament, avoiding British law courts to settle disputes, and boycotting British goods. 226 All of these instances are very concrete-they are linked with disassociating economically and politically. This was written 224 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989. Print. p 57 225 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 7, p 213 226 1bid. p 214 227 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications · Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 9, p ll8 that the self reliance in swadeshi is not merely material, but requires soul force. This sheds light on how swadeshi is an essential quality for swaraj: it forces one to rely on the other virtues in one's souL In general he linked swadeshi with more concrete things such as practicing one's own language. 228 In Hind Swaraj, Gandhi does say that by supporting swadeshi through boycotting foreign goods and institutions, "so shall we attain Home Rule."229 This shows the aspect of self reliance that is person ought to control his own impulses, and keep his soul as well as body clean ... Worldly success never comes to him who does not abstain from Africa "waste our manhood in sensual pleasures and abuse our women. Without understanding the true significance of marriage, we remain blindly absorbed in carnal desire."233 These references show that an important aspect of limiting one's sexualit)' is gaining control of one's desires.234 Thus, brahmacharya is an essential part of the moral and spiritual journey towards true swaraj. In Hind Swaraj, chastity is essential for swarafbecause it is "one of the greatest disciplines without which the mind cannot attain requisite firmness." It is a tool that enables one to gain much more control over the mind: "He whose mind is given over to the passions is not capable of any great effort." Carnal desire needs to be mastered for the purposes of being able to believe one is capable of doing challenging things. From these instances chastity is important because it enables self-control and discipline.235 Another form of restraint that Gandhi valued for practicing satyagraha and pursuing swaraj is the virtue of poverty. Poverty is not necessarily based on how much money one has but the emotional relationship to material well being. In June 1907, as he is beginning to protest against the Asiatic act, he wrote that those who want to become satyagrahis "should give up the desire for wealth, status and physical comforts, and dedicate their lives to India."236 Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 6, p 340 233 Ibid. p 358 234 In Gandhi's discussion of chastity in Hind Swaraj he did suggest the need to consider the rights of women, but did not develop the idea further ( Hind Swaraj, p 95). Gandhi does not suggest here that women cannot practice his ethics and therefore I will not explore this issue further for my analysis. 235 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 95 236 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of lnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 7,p 14 This language is very specific to not give up wealth, but the desire for it. In Gandhi's translation of Plato's Apology into Gujurati, in July 1908, he writes, "To all ... you should care less for wealth than for the soul. "237 This again shows how one should not place priorities on wealth. In May 1909, he writes that "he who clings to wealth cannot be loyal to truth ... This does not.mean that a satyagahi can have no wealth. He can, but he cannot make wealth his wealth and that this can be balanced with a spiritual question. Personally, he had to struggle with the costs of his newspaper, and knew that it is possible to use money for good without worshiping it. 239 Gandhi's description of poverty in Hind Swaraj aligns with the framework of poverty as an psychological relationship: "Pecuniary ambition and passive resistance cannot well go together. Those who have money are not expected to throw it away, but they are expected to be indifferent to it. They must be prepared to lose every penny."24° Coming back to the notion of swaraj, poverty is connected with the freedom to not worship material well being. It enables one to stay focused on the quest for swaraj. 237 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnfonnation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 8, p 214 9,p 226 7,p 277 and poverty. I have shown how Gandhi understood the virtues in the context .. of his political organizing and thought Even superficially, it is possible to see categories beginning to line up between the ends as well as the virtues for both Socrates and Gandhi: swaraj with eudaimonia, chastity and poverty with moderation, and swadeshi with justice. I now turn to the remaining two swaraj, "Fear of every kind must be overcome. Such service should be regarded as part one's religion. "242 In a later article of the same issue of his paper he wrote, "Fear God alone; then there is no need to fear anyone else."243 These statements seem to contradict each other: can one be afraid of god and use that as the motivation for positive action, or conversely is shedding all fear 241 Iyer, Raghavan. The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. p 69 242 Ibid. p 14 243 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volutp.e 7,p 5 South Africa to discard most, if not all fears. By February 1908, in a letter to a few friends, Gandhi wrote again about nature of fearing god: "The spirit of passive resistance [satyagraha], rightly understood, should make the people fear none and nothing but god-no cowardly fear, therefore, should deter the vast majority of sober minded Indians from doing their duty."244 This was written after Gandhi was released from prison for the first time and outside of the public sphere. There is no reason to believe that he is trying to use language that is politically appropriate for his closest friends. In this statement he made an important dichotomy: cowardly fear and fear that is non-cowardly. Cowardly fear is fear that comes from being afraid of anything but god. The inverse is being god fearing. This dichotomy helps flesh out later statements and show that they are not in contradiction with his belief in fear of god. Two weeks later, he wrote in Indian Opinion, "A satyagrahi enjoys a degree of freedom not possible for others, for he becomes a truly fearless person. Once his mind is rid of fear, he will never agree to be another's slave."245 In the same edition of the paper he wrote about recent assault committed against him where he was beaten unconscious: "I feel we fear death needlessly. I believe that I have not known such fear for a long time now. And I have grown more fearless after this incident."246 In these various references we can see that Gandhi did value eliminating cowardly fear. This is associated with gaining freedom such that 244 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 8, p 76 245 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 8, p 91 246 Ibid. p 94 one should only be afraid of god. Therefore, the cornerstone of Gandhian political action, non-violence, is premised on being able to achieve this level of fearlessness. The relationship between fearing god, achieving fearlessness, and acting non-violently shows the inseparability of Gandhi's political action from his spiritual journey. The relationship with god also raises questions related to the last virtue: truth. The virtue of truth and Gandhi's defmition of truth for even one 247 Ibid. p 430 248 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 44 249 Ibid. p 97 250 Ibid p 96 campaign can be incredibly challenging to work though. m This is in part because it is unclear at times whether he is referring to truth as reality or truth as the divine. As a result, I see two definitions that are distinct. The first is tied to a colloquial definition or truthfulness as honesty. The second is tied to Gandhi's conception of truth as god. In December 1907, just before entering prison for the first time, Gandhi discussed the cause for the recent plague in India and suggests that it would only grow because "of the sinfulness of the people." He describes the chief sin as untruthfulness. He does connect this to the plague by showing that people "make an outward show of cleanliness, but do not really observe it. If anything is to be fumigated, we only make a show of doing it." More generally, Indians "base our conduct on falsehood. In most matters we only make an outward showing." Here untruthfulness is tied with simply making the appearance to keeping a promise or a rule without following it in its entirety. Truthfulness is the inverse of these qualities, such as keeping a promise. This writing was designed to make his readers practice truthfulness. 252 Gandhi repeated this strategy of showing how India's tragedies are caused by untruthfulness. In March 1908, he wrote the starvation of fifty million Indians being based on divine will. The "chief fault being that we have very little truth in us." He explained that "in order to cover up our cowardice, we resort to deception and hypocrisy at every turn." While he does 251 Erikson, Erik H. Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence. New York: Norton, 1969. Print. 252 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume with separatist inclinations and wrote that "Truth has nothing to hide. There is no question, therefore, of satyagrahis maintaining a secret army."255 Thus, one aspect of truthfulness is connected to honesty, following through on promises, and not keeping secrets. Spiritually and politically, truthfulness demands rigorous honesty such that one does not even keep secrets. Truth also has been explicitly shown to be the essence of god as early as February 1908.256 In May 1909, he made pursuing truth in this way the first 253 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 8, p 157 254 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 96 255 Ibid p 96 fn 256 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume condition for individuals pursuing swaraj. satyagrahis "should show a special regard for truth ... that is to say, such a man should depend on truth alone ... he who leaves everything to God can never know defeat in this world."257 In this sense, faith and reliance on God is essential. He is writing this during his second stay in jail and as his compatriots are starting to be deported for not following the law. While he writes that defeat is impossible, this is the point where the struggle has gone on for almost two years-in Gandhi's own words "has lasted so long" and there is no clear suggestion that the Indian community will achieve victory.258 The implication of this context, is that while it is an evolution ofhis ideas it is also a specific response to concerns that the campaign will fail. By placing the failure or success in faith in god, he is showing that what appears as. impossible fight is in fact a possible victory because of god. In Hind Swaraj, Gandhi suggested that all others pursuing swaraj for India should understand that Indian civilization "is based on the belief in God. So understanding and so believing, it behooves every lover of India to cling to Indian civilization even as a child clings to it's mother's breast."259 I interpret this to mean that one has to believe in God in order to cling to Indian civilization. He has not connected faith in God to truth explicitly in this work. From his previous writings as well as later references to this relationship, there 257 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of infonnation and Broadcasting, Govt. of india, 1969. Print. Volume 9, p 225-227 258 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of lnfonnation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 9, p 224 259 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 58 This concludes the explanation of Gandhi's virtues during this case study. Now, I compare them to Socrates' end and his virtues. I consider how their respective ends relations to the virtues, whether it can be achieved while we are alive, and the relationship to politics. I then explore the virtues inter­relationships as well as a side by side comparison of the between the two .. systems of thought. Some of the similarities that emerge are not surprising: both value self-control fearlessness and honesty. More interestingly, there are strong connections between their understanding of how to relate to material well being, faith, and non-violence. They also diverge on some key points. Specifically, how they understand human limitations and reason show differences in focus. Gandhi's and Socrates Ends While both thinkers were in agreement that the perfected virtues are sufficient for their respective goals, they diverge on whether the goal can be fully realized in this lifetime. Socrates was clear during the Phaedo that eudaimonia is not accessible to humans while they are alive.261 He suggested that perfect virtues, while sufficient for eudaimonia, cannot be achieved in this lifetime.262 Gandhi believed that swaraj can be achieved in this lifetime 260 Chatterjee, Margaret. Gandhi's Religious Thought. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1983. Print. p 69 261 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 59, 68a-b 262 Bussanich, John, and Nicholas D. Smith, eds. The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. London: Continuum, 2013. Print. p 158 because the virtues could be perfect and were sufficient for complete self control:263 He also could point to examples throughout history of individuals who have achieved the state of swaraj that he described. 264 Socrates believed that it is only upon death that humans who have purified themselves sufficiently can move closer to the gods and begin to develop true wisdom. 265 A possible explanation for this disagreement is the context they are developed under: Socrates was waiting for his death while Gandhi was mobilizing a community into action. This leads me to the relationship between politics and ethics for both of was focused on personal thriving and therefore found himself in the political area even though he has tried to remain in the private sphere. 268 They both engaged in political action, but Gandhi's ethics are reactions to his political 264 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of lnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. volume 9, p 265 Plato. "Phaedo." Plato's Apology. Crito and Phr.edo of Socrates. Trans. Henry Cary. Ed. Edward Brooks. Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1897. N. pag. Print. p 71 266 Iyer, Raghavan. The Moral and Political Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. p 8 267 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University ofNotre Dame, 1989. Print. p 153 268 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 30, 32e wealth or sensual desires. Likewise one must not have any fear. For honesty to be practiced one must also overcome fear so that there is no reason to lie. And all of these qualities need to be practiced and therefore require the sense of self-reliance found in swadeshi. Thus, the virtues are united for both Socrates and Gandhi. overlap. In broad strokes, both emphasize engaging with fear, limiting desires, being, having faith in a higher power and pursuing truth. 269 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Pare!. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 97 Socrates and Gandhi diverge, however, in the emphasis they place on certain qualities as well as the way they have grouped those qualities into separate virtues. For example, Socrates and Gandhi both have virtues designed to resist desires but have a different number of virtues to explain the ides. As a result, I have chosen to group the virtues based on Socrates' pursuit of eudaimonia. Justice during this period. One aspect of Socratic justice--honoring one's community -maps onto Gandhian swadeshi to a degree. Socrates believed honoring the polis required that a person either try to persuade the government or submit to the consequences of one's actions; it requires being willing to fight for one's Edward Brooks. Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1897. N. pag. Print. 13, 12 means would be completely ineffective given the strength of the British army and navy.272 Therefore he did not say fighting is part of honoring one's country. 273 The second aspect of Socratic justice-non-harming-shows how Gandhi has not yet made ahimsa a virtue to be cultivated. He has emphasized that violence cannot be a means to swaraj, but has not made non-violence a part of the mindset necessary for swaraj.274 Gandhi also has emphasized violence as physical harm during this period.275 Socrates, by contrast, has emphasized that harm is connected to whether one impacts a person's soul in a negative manner such as when he explains that corrupting youth implies 271 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: into his ethics by the end of 1909. 274 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind Swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Parel. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 11 6 275 1bid. p 88 harm.276 Socrates will not make the leap at any point that physical violence is synonymous with harming one's soul. At this point Gandhi's career, these thinkers diverge on how to understand harming an individual and whether it is part of means or ends they wish to use. Moderation, Courage, Fearlessness and Poverty Socratic courage and moderation encompass a very similar set of qualities found in Gandhian fearlessness and poverty. While there are many similarities that are expected, this analysis illustrates a few surprising points of agreement. The analysis also shows disagreement about the implications for violent action and the extent of limiting one's desires. Socratic courage has.one of the components ofGandhian fearlessness: not fearing death. Both thinkers heavily emphasize fearlessness of death is essential for their respect virtues. This similarity might in part be from Gandhi's understanding of Socrates' Apology and his desire to "have the moral strength which enabled Socrates ... to embrace death as if it were his beloved. "277 Gandhi however uses this virtue to imply that a truly fearless person would have no need to fight with a weapon because he or she has no concern .. for death. Socrates' description of defending one's city implies that courage The second dimension of Socratic moderation includes not being motivated by any desires. 282 The purpose is to free oneself to pursue truth with the gods. 283 Gandhi divided this up into two virtues: poverty and therefore must not aim to acquire wealth for its own sake.284 Brahmacharya is also premised on resisting the passions, for "he whose mind is given over to Socratic truth encapsulates this notion well. Not surprisingly, they both are in strong agreement about the need to tell the truth in order pursue their respective ends. Both also have a more transcendent understanding of truth as reality and relating to god. These two dimensions of truth map on the two aspects of Socratic wisdom: knowing one's limitations in relation to the gods and striving to understand reality. Socrates and Gandhi are both in agreement about the limited nature of human capabilities. For Socrates, the gods are able to know the whole of truth and teach it whereas humans cannot. 287 Gandhi, in a similar manner has connected truth with god and shown that human power is fallible.288 Gandhi, unlike Socrates, made the leap that by following the gods, satyagrahis cannot be defeated. Socrates by comparison does not suggest in these dialogues that victory is assured by relying on god. Both, however, have emphasized the extremely limited nature of human capacity in their respective endeavors and therefore require that a higher power to achieve their goals. The second aspect of Socratic wisdom is pursuing truth and knowing how to live.289 Gandhi agreed when he asserted, "True knowledge and true education consist in knowing and understanding our true state, and in fashioning our lives and conduct in the light of that knowledge."290 Gandhi 287 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology. " Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 22, 23a-b 288 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 9, p 225-227 289 Plato. "Phaedo." Plato's Apology, Crito and Phcedo of Socrates. Trans. Henry Cary. Ed. did not incorporate this into his definition of truth but might have implied it when he suggested people must act with "thoughtfulness of conduct" in order to achieve swaraj.291 Both, therefore, see the value in cultivating moral conduct in relation to truthful action. Conclusion Stepping back, I can conclude that during this period Gandhi's pursuit of swaraj is very similar to Socrates' pursuit of eudaimonia. There are many similarities in the types of aims-self control, connection to community, and relationship to god and truth-both thinkers are striving towards. Also, there are differences of the relationship between the virtues and the way that these qualities are categorized. How some virtues manifest such as Socratic justice in comparison to Gandhian swadeshi appears to be more of a function of extern circumstances than ethical disagreements. As I move to the second case study, we will see some of these political difference shift and change Gandhi's set of virtues as well how he frames swaraj. Thinking more broadly about what might be gleaned for thinking about activism in America today, this analysis suggests that there is a way to integrate living well with political activism. Given the similarities between Gandhian ethics during this time and Socratic ethics, there is hope that this analysis will bear fruit for considering what ethics tools might be used. In particular, notions of connection to community, fearlessness, and control of 291 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 9, p 45 1 Chapter 4: Salt and swaraj After comparing Gandhian ethics in South Africa to Socrates', we have been able to see some major themes emerge. Returning to the question_:_to what extent does the Gandhian pursuit of swaraj resemble the Socratic pursuit of eudaimonia-we can see they are show a great deal of agreement between the Indian National Congress to engage in whatever civil disobedience was necessary, and by March 12th he along with other satyagrahis had begun to march to the sea.293 They reached the ocean on April 5th and on the 6th Gandhi picked up salt from the ocean, thus breaking the British law and their monopoly on salt. By May 5th, he along with many of the Indian national party are arrested. The rest of the period I am considering he spent in jail. This symbolic act leads to the eventual breakdown of the British salt monopoly and some consider to be Gandhi's most famous satyagraha campaign. 294 294 Wolpert, Stanley A. Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford: The gap of over 20 years since South Africa had led him to change his thinking on many of the virtues, the number of virtues, and their implications. His speeches and letters before, during, and after the Salt March bare testament to this change. In particular, he wrote detailed reflections on the vows of the ashram while in prison. The audience originally were the members of his ashram, the training ground for satyagrahis to transform India.295 Gandhi illustrated that the value of these vows was the cultivation of virtues.296 These meditations show the relationship between the virtues and the ultimate goal of swaraj. In this chapter I will first consider what virtues I will use for my comparison. I will then delve into the way's Gandhi end has changed during this period before tracing the meaning of each virtue. Once I have explored defmitions of each of the virtues, I will compare them to the Socratic virtues and show how Gandhi has changed over time. The chapter will conclude with a discussion on possible explanations for some of these changes. The List ofVirtues Gandhi wrote meditations on thirteen vows and therefore thirteen corresponding virtues in prison from July to the end of October 1930. The virtues he listed included: truth, ahimsa, brahmacharya, control of the palate, Oxford UP, 200 I. Print. p 144 295 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 42, 478 296 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44 p 220 non-stealing, non-possession, fearlessness, ending untouchability, bread labor, religious tolerance, humility, and acts for the benefit of others or yajna. He · also believed in the importance of swadeshi during this time, though he decided that he cannot write on it for political reasons/97 298 There are certain virtues that I will not compare because Gandhi stated that they are specific to circumstances in India. 299 These include ending untouchability and bread­labor-working to at least provide one's own food. 300 significant demarcations between them. This points to one change from Gandhi's thought in South Africa. During the Salt March he had virtues that had much less demarcation and are often challenging to separate analytically. I will return to this when thinking about how Gandhi's virtues are united. The list that I will use for my comparison excludes context specific virtues and considers sub-virtues as aspects of larger virtues. The list is: truth, 297 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications before the case study began, he used swaraj and moksha-the Hindu notion of achieving enlightenment-interchangeably. 305 This is also supported by the secondary literature. 306 307 Gandhi also described himself and his followers as 302 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 42, 483 303 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 40 304 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. volfune 307 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989. Print. p 208-9 "humble creatures, aspiring after moksha and seeking knowledge, determined to follow Truth and dedicated to its quest."308 Here, he equated moksha and truth. Connecting this to the previous relationship between moksha and swajar we see how truth, moksha, and swaraj are all interconnected concepts. Therefore, truth, moksha, and swaraj are all the same goal. At other points during this period, Gandhi described truth as god. He wanted to see truth "face to face" and in so doing achieve "ineffable peace."309 In this sense, his goal was inseparable from the attainment of unification with Brahman or truth. 310 The new definition of truth marks a change in emphasis from his time in South Africa. During the Salt satyagraha, the relationship to god is brought to the foreground of Gandhi's thought. This more closely resembled Socrates' pursuit of eudaimonia, where the goal was framed as pursuit of truth, but caused Socrates' to engage politically. This also markers is a key point where swaraj has changed. Gandhi wrote in his meditation on truth, "it is impossible for us to realize perfect truth so long as we are imprisoned in this mortal frame.'@ No longer is an individual able to achieve swaraj within one's lifetime. He moved closer to Socrates here by arguing the limitations of our body prevent us from achieving perfection in this lifetime. For this reason, Gandhi says one needs faith in 308 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 80 309 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 115 31 0 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 166 311 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Pririt. volume 44,p 57 dramatic developments in his thinking for his entire life to a sixty year old man who realized the incremental nature ofhis improvement. Gandhi also the purposes of this essay when truth is the ends I will use the term swaraj and when it is a virtue I will use truth. In a speech given the day before he left his ashram for the Salt March, he explained that non-violence and truth was "the only means for the attainment of swaraj."313 During the march, truth was described as not deceiving .others.314 Truthfulness was also equated with not keeping secrets from anyone including an adversary. 315 These were very 312 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 44 1 313 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 47 314 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume . 43, p 60 315 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications similar to Gandhi's understanding of the virtue of truth during his campaign in South Africa. When Gandhi wrote his meditation on truth from prison in July of 1930, other elements of the virtue was developed. Truthfulness also implied the belief that honesty can never lead to harm. 316 Furthermore, truthfulness should practicing in thought, in word, and dead. 317 This shows a more truthfulness. This aspect of being able to distinguish is not synonymous with reason. In a response regarding questions of God he said that "reason can only take us a little distance.'mo In another instance, Gandhi wrote on the relationship Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 42, p 482 316 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 220 317 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications , Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 41 318 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works ofMahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 104 319 Gandhi, Mohandas K .. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 58 320 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 169 rationality. This analysis is crucial for understanding the extent that truthfulness dove-tails with rationality and important place of disagreement ahimsa, Tolerance, and yajna Prior to the Salt March and during it, Gandhi defmed ahimsa, commonly translated as non-violence, as love or charity322 The love of the satyagrahi is extreme. If a true satyagrahi is killed, he or she will feel no anger towards the person, but pray for the murderer. 323 This aspect of ahimsa shows a deep sense of compassion for all people regardless of whether they are the satyagrahi's friend or foe. 321 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 381 322 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. volume 42, p 48 1 323 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 93 88 Gandhi compared ahimsa to a fire during the March. "Love burns adversaries or "winning them over. "325 Through this march Gandhi constantly reiterated the need for self-purification and self-sacrifice.326 In this context, love is aligned with giving oneself completely to improve the well being of others through purification, self-suffering, and working to change others. while striving to improve the beliefs of those around him or her, a satyagrahi, will also look to his or her own faults first. In Gandhi's meditation on ahimsa, written July 31st, we see the defmition and extent of ahimsa clarified. He described the value of non­ violence, for this spiritual quest, comes in part from not focusing on external 324 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 93 325 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 59 326 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 327 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 89 to practice ahimsa.329 Gandhi's solution was to combine loving action with non-violence to practice ahimsa. Gandhi set his explanation in the Indian tradition. Gandhi explained that In order to make progress towards achieving swaraj ancient From this, he showed 328 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt of lndia, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 58 329 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 57-58 committing hann. Therefore there is also a duty to change how they act. This Gandhi developed this further during his meditation on tolerance for all religions. This was written September 25th of 1930. He pointed out that when trying to change someone's perspective in a loving spirit, "we shall bring him to see the error of his ways or he will convince us of our error."331 This is an Spinning is one example that he gives to show the variety of actions that can be included. 334 44, p 241 In his meditation on brahmacharya, the term has transcended his previous interpretation. First he gives an etymology of the term: '"Charya' means course of conduct; 'brahmacharya,' conduct adapted to the search of Brahman, i.e. Truth."336 From this, he explained that the way this should be applied is through "control of all the organs of sense."337 This "like all other observances must be expressed in thought, word and deed."338 No longer is 335 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 60 336 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 70 337 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 70 338 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications this virtue limited to sexual relations, but includes limiting all senses, words, and thoughts. Gandhi explains -that while it is near impossible to never have impure thoughts, "victory will be ours in the end if we non-co-operate with the mind in its evil wanderings."339 If one does not control the senses, then he or she would "become their slaves."340 Therefore, this type of self-restraint is essential for swaraj. In Gandhi's ashram, the control of palate is based on the same framework of control of all sense, but is considered separate from brahmachrya because "the palate is the chief sinner. "341 In essence this Gandhi concluded by showing the limit of his notion of brahmacharya from South Africa: "We must entirely forget the incomplete defmition which restricts itself to the sexual aspect only."343 This is only one essential practice Division, Ministry of lnfonnation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 69 339 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 68 340 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 80 341 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 70 342 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 79 Interestingly, while he personally gave up salt, he saw that it was essential for the diet of many of the poorest Indians and therefore was interested in the Salt Campaign in spite of his desire to control one's diet. 343 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications He believed money could be evil if people hoarded it. In essence, "possession of money becomes wrong only when it is held in excess."344 Excessive wealth is not moral. During the Salt March, in mid-March 1930, he referenced living off 44, p 70 344 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 42, p 507 related to living above the average means of the poorest Indians. This reference points to a more expansive definition of stealing than simply not taking from others.345 something that is not essential even if it is freely given by the other person. There is a type of mental theft outside of taking another's idea; if one is "tempted by the sight of an attractive thing" then one has committed theft. 348 Both of these aspects of limiting theft require that one eliminate many desires.349 This has some overlap with brahmacharya and it is readily Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 208 347 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume volume 44, p 90 348 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume volume 44, p 91 349 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications "Possession implies provision of the future. A seeker after truth ... cannot enables one to "arrive at the ideal of total renunciation and learn the use of the body for the purpose of service. "353 At other points Gandhi described this as non-attachment, but the meaning appears synonymous. In a letter to a 44, p 401 the burden."354 In a different letter he described it as "freedom from the sense of'l' and 'Mine'."355 Therefore, these aspects of non-possession include giving up being motived by the self and not feeling put upon by the work. Similarly, there are many ideas that Gandhi considered useless possessions. Obtaining this type of useless knowledge is a failure of non­posession. He defined useful and useless thoughts according to the dichotomy between thoughts that "turn us away from God or do not turn us towards Him are unnecessary possessions."356 Therefore, much of commonly understood knowledge is a failure of Gandhian non-possession.357 Thinking about the definition of this virtues, I see non-stealing as an extension of non-attachment. Non-attachment includes not wanting more than is necessary in thought, word, or deed in the moment. It also includes recognizing that the body is simply an instrument that is ours to use for joyously serving others. Based on these precepts, traditional notions of stealing things or ideas logically follow. Fearlessness 354 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of lnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volwne 44, p 250 355 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volwne . 44, p 195 356 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volwne 44, p 104 357 This raises questions about whether the different types of knowledge that he had acquired were useless: his legal training, dietary experiments, political organizing, reading from a wide range of subjects, and all the other forms of learning he has engaged with. Gandhi never addressed how to rectify this concern directly and continued to limit the types of knowledge that one should acquire. 43, p 47 43, p 297 43, p 131 44, p 114 rightly afraid of animal passion, anger and the like." Gandhi is not just valuing fear in god, but also fearing certain negative aspects of character. This type of fear might be a way to help individuals fight these "internal foes" and cultivate a cautious relationship with these aspects of personality. 362 Given this dichotomy, he believed it was nearly impossible to cultivate perfect fearlessness. The only way to achieve this state of fearlessness is by realizing "the Supreme, as it implies freedom from delusion."363 Thus, complete fearlessness· is achieved through gaining complete swaraj or unification with Truth. Stepping back, the virtue of fearlessness implies not being afraid of anything except god and one's internal foes. While fearlessness has remained relatively similar to Gandhi's understanding in South Africa, we can see that he also considered that there is a use for fear in relation to one's internal enemies. Humility Gandhi concluded his mediation on fearlessness by writing, "When we thus ... reduce ourselves to the rank of servants, humbler than the very dust under our feet, all fears will roll away like mist."364 What did he mean by this 362 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. N:ew Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnfonnation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 115 363 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnfonnation and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 44,p ll5 364 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnfonnation and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 44,p ll5 awakened in him and the. divine strength becomes his." In other words, by giving up pride in one's individual strength, one can be enabled by the strength of God.365 In Gandhi's meditation on humility, he showed pride as a limitation for that even if we are acting humbly, the action is meaningless so long as there is selfish motivation and pride internally. Humility, in essence, "should make the possessor realize that he is as nothing." In ceasing to "feel that we are something we become one with God." While this state is hard to achieve, it is attainable; however, if this state ofhumility is consciously pursued, it is unattainable. Complete humility is complete surrender to God. 366 Humility in action is beneficent: it means "constant endeavor entirely directed towards the service of humanity." Thus, through realizing that the humility. 367 Swadeshi The last virtue, swadeshi is the only one that Gandhi does not devote a meditation to. He explained his choice to omit swadeshi: "I may violate to some extent my resolution to make no reference to political subjects. Even if I article titled "Swadeshi," outlining how swadeshi relates to boycotts and domestic mill produced cloth. Swadeshi is defined as using pure khadi-cloth that has been made in India by hand-spun means. After explaining why khadi is perfect for the challenges facing India and mill produced cloth will not be sufficient for the boycott, he concluded on the nature of swadeshi dharma. "While practicing it [swadeshi dharma], anyone who imbibes in the spirit of Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 186 swadeshi will also readily abide by it in aU other things." I understand this to mean once someone uses khadi and understands swadeshi, he will also "deny himself all foreign goods which he can do without." This shows that swadeshi in action requires honoring local goods over foreign ones. 369 This article also describes a need for swadeshi in thought. "A person who wears khadi because it is fashionable, or without understanding it's importance is not said to practice swadeshi."37° From this we can suggest that swadeshi, like the other virtues needs to be practiced in thought, word and action. In thought it requires that one understand the importance of this process. Looking back to his campaign in South Africa, the inteUectual understanding also required that one honor one's local community In speech, as during the South Africa campaign, swadeshi seems to be linked to honoring one's native language. In India's case, Hindi. While there is no direct relationship between swadeshi and Hindi during the case study, there are moments, such as March of 1930, where Gandhi describes that he wants "to make Hindi the national language" and that he "worships the national language. "371 This emphasis Gandhi places in Hindi, in corroboration with his previous connection between swadeshi and practicing one's native language suggests that the use of native language is still part of swadeshi. Thus the definition available from his works is connected to 369 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 194-196 370 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 195 371 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of lnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 20 valuing local goods in thought, word, and deed. This completes my analysis of his virtues during the Salt Campaign. I now turn to a comparison between these virtues and the Socratic virtues. I will first look at the relationship between swaraj and eudaimonia directly. I will then turn to the relationship between the virtues before showing a side by side comparison of the relevant Socratic and Gandhian virtues. This however does not imply that one should not strive as much as possible to cultivate the different aspects of swaraj to purify oneself while alive. 373 Likewise, Socrates believed that this perfected state is not possible while alive, but in order to achieve it we must constantly purify ourselves throughout our lifetime.374 372 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 57 It is unclear how he connected real swaraj to political swaraj during this period as he did during the campaign in South Africa because now real swaraj is impossible while he was striving for political swaraj . 373 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. oflndia, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 103 374 Plato. "Phaedo." Plato's Apology, Crito and Phcedo of Socrates. Trans. Henry Cary. Ed. Edward Brooks. Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1897. N. pag. Print. p 71 · Another place of convergence is the relationship between the ultimate constantly striving to further cultivate their respective virtues. Both also agree that to achieve one of the virtues in their perfected form, one has achieved all of them. Socrates' notion of the unity of virtues is very clear in much of the research surrounding the dialogues.376 In Gandhi's case, all of the virtues are first shown to enable one's pursuit of swaraj.371 truth. 379 Without showing all the relationships between all the virtues, it is possible to see from these two examples that they all interdependent. Thus, both thinkers do believe in a unity of the virtues even though Gandhi's construction of the virtues have changed in their scope and scale. The place where both thinkers diverge the most is in the way they organize and categorize the virtues. Gandhi has developed sub-virtues and created a longer list of virtues than Socrates. In thinking more about categorization, Gandhian virtues also do not have as sharp analytic distinctions as Socrates'. This is shown by the way I have had to incorporate some virtues into more expansive virtues in this analysis. This might be explained by Gandhi's desire to create a community in his ashram where virtues were turned essential distinction: the spiritual is necessarily political for Gandhi. That is not the case for Socratic eudaimonia. This is one of the more important insights when considering what can be gleaned for incorporating political activism into living well. They also diverge in creating virtues that are place specific, such as ending untouchability in India. Gandhi was interested in creating a system that was specifically tailored to the problems in India at this particular point in history. Socrates does place a great value in the specific qualities of Athens, but does not suggest that his way of living should be limited to Athens or even Greece in the dialogues I am considering. While I am not comparing these 380 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 58, 66d-e Socratic wisdom has two components: knowing the limitations of human knowledge relative to the gods and the pursuit of ethical truth. I see there is a strong overlap between the first dimension of wisdom and Gandhian humility. The Socratic move of bringing human potential to be much lower than a the power of the gods is mirrored in Gandhian humility. Gandhi, like Socrates, would agree that it is only possible to gain insight and strength 381 Plato. "Crito." Plato's Apology, Crito and Phr:edo of Socrates. Trans. Henry Cary. Ed. Edward Brooks. Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1897. N. pag. Print. 6 Gandhian humility and this aspect of Socratic wisdom also implies helping others. For Socrates, it means practicing philosophy to show what other people should care about because of the command of God. 383 For Gandhi this means satyagrahis must dedicate themselves to serve all living creatures. 384 This similarity, leads both thinkers to conclude that they should care little for their personal well being. 385 While these similarities do exist there are also some notable differences. The most obvious is that Gandhian humility would deeply oppose Socrates' suggestion that he is a gift to Athens. The notion that anyone could of themselves as less than God and less than others such that they can be completely altruistic. By comparison, Socratic wisdom requires that one understand that one can be better than other humans by recognition of one's ignorance. 382 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 206 383 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 28, 30a 384 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 206 385 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 29, Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 28, 30e .387 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Compete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 29, 3lc Socrates tackled the question of following the commands of a superior. In essence, he agreed that one should follow the commands of a superior even if it means placing oneself in great harm. 392 He gave the example of following a general into the army, and in this way might be said to agree with Gandhi. Socrates, however, would show an exception if he believed he were receiving a sign from god to not follow the orders of any man. 39 3 In the example in the Apology, he appears to have interpreted the oracle at Delphi using his own reason in order to understand the commands of the god. 394 The fact that Socrates interprets even the god's command with reason shows that Socrates would not limit the use of reason after joining an army. In regards to faith, Socratic wisdom points to reasoning being the way to move closer to the gods in the Phaedo.395 Thus, Socrates also would not agree with Gandhi's belief that "reason can only take us a little distance" in jurors.397 By contrast Gandhi believes that reason alone cannot persuade a person to change their thinking in all circumstances. Thus Gandhi requires that we use loving means in winning others over. 398 While Gandhi might have 393 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 27, 29d 44, p 58 agreed that Socrates should not have used his family to avoid punishment, Gandhi wol,lld not think that reason alone can always achieve the results of purifying other's habits and minds. Thus while there are many similarities between Socratic notions of wisdom and Gandhian humility and truth, there are also key differences. Humility requires that individuals lower themselves as much as possible where Socratic wisdom only means they recognize their inferiority relative to the gods. Gandhi also does not ascribe the same efficacy to reason as Socrates. Temperance, brahmacharya, and non-attachment Socratic temperance also has two aspects, not being motived by pleasure and not being motivated by pain. The similarities between Socrates framing for temperance as moderating desires and Gandhi's framing of brahmacharya have some resemblance. The same relationship is true for Gandhi's understanding of non-attachment and not being motivated by pain. The greatest difference is the extent of the restraint both of these constructs demand for Gandhian ethics. This is not comparable to the Socratic framework. For Socrates, moderating desires consists of not letting oneself be mastered by any pleasure. 399 He suggested that we should not simply rely on physical desires, including food and sexual enjoyment.400 Socrates also argued them."401Conceptually this sounds similar to Gandhian brahmacharya. Both are aimed controlling the desires such that they do not take control of a person. Where they diverge is the implications of these respective virtues. Socrates limited his desires less than Gandhi. While Socrates did limit his material well being by not taking care of his personal affairs, he did not aspect of Socratic temperance, not being motivated by pains. Socrates' rational for not being motivated by pains was that it "provides ... another nail to rivet the soul to the body."404 He also believed that one should not value wealth or material well being.405 This resonates very much with two parts of Gandhian non-attachment. The first is the recognition that one should not be 40 1 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 72, 83a 402 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Socrates: by focusing on unnecessary things we do not focus to the same extent on the pursuit of god and truth. The second is that ultimately non-attachment means letting. go of the body. This freedom from the body is what enables one to become closer to a higher power for both thinkers. Within these similarities, there are important distinctions. Gandhi there is nothing that is identified as knowledge that should not be learned. With both aspects of Socratic temperance in comparison to the Gandhian virtues there is a clear distinction. Socrates was seeking moderation of the while Gandhi was seeking complete control. Justice, ahimsa, and swadeshi 406 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 103-104 407 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 195 408 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 104 409 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 66-67, 76b-c There are three aspects to Socratic justice: non-violence, helping others, and honoring one's community. ahimsa has a few key similarities with justice as non-violence and helping others while swadeshi has connections with understanding justice as honoring the community. Socratic justice and Gandhian ahimsa 's greatest similarity is that both incorporate not doing harm and positively helping other. Gandhi had, however, expanded this aspect of ahimsa to explicitly include all living beings.410 Socrates, by comparison believed the heroes who died fighting in war were heroes.411 Thus, Socrates' understanding of harm was much more limited in scope. Non-harm for Gandhi included physical harm, harm through words, and harmful thoughts. Socratic justice also had some overlap with Gandhian ahimsa's emphasis on as acting through love. Socrates does show that doing good for others is associated with purification of the soul.412 As with the other virtues, Gandhi went much farther than Socrates. Socrates did not explicitly connect loving others with following god's command as shown by his desire to rebuke anyone who believes they have virtue.413 Thus Socrates' ethics does not emphasize loving and compassionate motivation to the same extent as Gandhian ahimsa. 410 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44,p 58 411 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 26, 28d 412 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36 .. Print. p 24, 25c-e 413 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 28, 30a Turning to the third aspect of justice-honoring community-there are valuing local goods, institutions, and ideas are mirrored to a degree in Socrates' valuing of community. Socrates primarily focused on the importance of the institutions of the city and values them over other cities, even those that were well govemed.414 Socrates did not, however, mention local goods or ideas. This is the first way these thinkers diverge on respecting community. Even with regard to local institutions, Socrates and Gandhi have an under. During the rule of the thirty, a time of violence and political revolt, Socrates does not wish to overthrow the government. 417 Both leaders show that disobeying laws is not opposed to honoring community. 418 Socrates believed that if he disobeyed a law he must not try to destroy the government, whether it is harming others or not. Gandhi's whole 414 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 37-48. Print. p 46, 53a-b 415 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Crito." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. 416 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 43, 163 417 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. 418 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Apology." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 17-36. Print. p 30, 32b-c form of political activism being unified with his moral and spiritual quest is opposed to this. This disagreement is a fundamental difference between the Socratic and Gandhian frameworks. Fortitude and fearlessness Socratic fortitude and Gandhian fearlessness show many similarities with external fears, but diverge with regard to internal fears. Both agree that one should not fear death because of the relationship to God. For Socrates, this is because god is good and death is an essential precondition in order to fully pursue wisdom.419 Gandhi relies on the notion that one should fear god in order to overcome this same fear.420 They both would have agreed that one should not be afraid oflosing material wealth or reputation because of the fear of god. Gandhi diverges from Socrates on internal fears. Gandhi shifted from his stance in South Africa by believing that one should be fearful of desires and emotions in order to restrain them. By contrast, Socrates believes there is no reason to fear these emotions, but to disdain them and not be moved by them.421 The significance of this difference is that Gandhi sees a positive use for fear both in relation to God and to one's emotions whereas Socrates does not. Thus, Socratic fortitude does not have exceptions whereas Gandhian 419 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 55, 63c 420Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 131 421 Grube, George.M. A., trans. "Phaedo." Ed. John M. Ed. Cooper. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hutchinson, 1997. 49-100. Print. p 59, 68d that this journey requires not harming others and honoring one's community. these show many of their similarities. The key differences between these two frameworks whether reason alone has the efficacy to change people and institutions. From this arises the disagreement between whether unjust institutions can be attacked by means aside from reason. I now turn to look at how Gandhi's ideas have changed with time and whether he ultimately has moved closer or farther away for Socrates' ethical framework. Gandhi's Change Over Time Considering the big conclusions of this analysis, we are able to see that over time Gandhi's ethics moved away from Socrates'. Virtue by virtue, we see that Gandhi's virtues became more expansive than Socrates'. Margaret Chatterjee pointed out how much Gandhi's life was a "protest against all that makes a fragmented life."422 From looking at each virtue, we can see how all encompassing his ethical framework was. controlling the desires through self-restraint shows a large divergence with Socrates. From the above analysis, I conclude that Gandhi decided that the limits of reason meant there was a need for something else to reign in desire. During the Salt Campaign, we see Gandhi feared his desires and would have suggested that reason alone could contain them. He decided that vows as a means of complete control was the solution most available to him. In this sense his ethicals are unreasonable; there is no implicit claim that reason will be able to solve all woes. By contrast, Socrates accepted reason as a means that could lead one in the pursuit of the divine. This choice of personal ethics also appears to have had significant implications for Gandhi's political project. Prior to my first case study, Gandhi used his training as a lawyer to write and persuade the South African government and the public about the problems of the law against Asiatics; he was using reason alone, initially.423 Over time, he recognized that this was 422 Chatterjee, Margaret. Gandhi's Religious Thought. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1983. Print. p 2 423 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications strategies to convince the government and other institutions to change: he had integrated economic boycott, systematic civil disobedience, and boycott of political and educational institutions as part of the arsenal to compel the government to listen to an argument for ending the salt tax. Considering the change of Gandhian swaraj of over time relative to Socratic eudaimonia, we see how explicitly spiritual Gandhian ethics are. engaged in highly political action. These conclusions and the detailed analysis answer the question I set out on-to what extent does the Gandhian pursuit of swaraj resemble the Socratic pursuit of eudaimonia? We have seen the answer to this question for each case study as well as how Gandhi has changed over time relative to Socrates. We can see the specific qualities that Gandhi valued during each question, but to use it as a way of exploring Gandhian ethics to glean what can be taken from them to enable political activism in the United States in the early 21st century. In my fmal chapter I will outline what might be Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 5, p 387, 389; volume 6, p 264 424 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 8, 366-367 incorporated for an ethics of activism. Thus, Gandhian ethics were not designed to answer how someone can get this desire; this explains Gandhi's intent in 1909 when he wrote that earnestness is one of "the foundations of swarajya. "426 He did not know how to instill a longing for his goal, but he could enable those who wanted to pursue it. From this I believe that Gandhian ethics are not an effective vehicle for re-imagining the good life so that Americans that are politically apathetic become engaged. I do not think, however, that this project was in vane. From the actions those who have been inspired by Gandhi's ethics and his own actions, there is value for those who are already interested in political activism. And these people, through their actions are able to inspire many more to engage in a way that an ethical system cannot. With this in mind, my comparison has elucidated an ethical system that is a valuable guide for political activists. Thus, I will conclude with a sketch on how Gandhi's ethics could be re­ 425 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1989. Print. p 61 426 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 9, p 451 imagined for activism today. I will use the same means-ends framework that I used for my comparison of Socrates and Gandhi. From my analysis, this re-imagined system should be fourtded on the Gandhian and Socratic connection between the means being to the end as a seed is to a tree.427 I will first consider what a comparable ends would be to swaraj, especially with the explicit spiritual studying Gandhi in creating an ethical framework that enables activists. I have chosen to do sketches of the virtues as a way to show that this is not the final word on how to create an ethics for activists, but rather as the beginning of a discussion of the possibilities. Swaraj and Liberation 427 Gandhi, Mohandas. Hind swaraj and Other Writings. Ed. Anthony Pare!. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. p 79 121 Given the connotations of faith and spiritual exploration in America, framing· . . . the ultimate goal of ethics would limit the type of activist who would in interested in pursuing it. Because of this, I will develop an ethics that does not have god as the explicit aim. Thus, I cannot use his framing of swaraj during the Salt Campaign. Lookjng at Gandhi's from of swaraj during his time in South Africa, I believe the notion of freedom or what I call liberation might be more accessible. Given that the goal is not spiritual liberation, what does liberation mean here? I see the goal of these ethics as the liberation to choose what is important and valuable in life. It is the ability to determine how we defme our self-worth and what desires and fears we act upon. This hearkens back to Gandhi's understanding of swaraj as self-restraint where the individual is able to achieve increasing control of oneself.428 In its most simplistic formulation, moving towards liberation enables one to increasing choose how to ascribe value. With this type of liberation, activists would be able to gain increasing agency in how the extent of time and effort they are able to pour into their respective projects. While I will not focus on the way each virtue lends itself to activism, one can see that this connects the ethics with activism. If this is what liberation involves, what is one liberated from? Gandhi's virtues liberate the satyagrahi from fear, uncontrollable desire, deception, isolation, and harming others. Thus, liberation enables one to overcome these restraints. When I reorganize Gandhi's virtues to fit modem America I arrive at a list of five virtues that seeks to respond directly to each of these: community, honesty, compassion, freedom, and courage. Looking at Gandhi's formulation of swaraj during the Salt Campaign, I also accept that perfect liberation is not possible. While individuals cannot ever "arrive" so to speak, there is always room for increasing liberation. Based on this, the goal is to try to always further cultivate the virtues. Like others and truthfulness with oneself. Honesty with others is based on Gandhi's conclusion truthfulness from the Salt Campaign-telling the truth and not keeping secrets.429 One of the limitations, however, of not having god connected to the central goal of these ethics is that this system cannot conclude that being truthful in all instances necessarily will lead to good outcomes as Gandhi could. 430 The alternative explanation for honesty available for these ethics is that because the means and ends are connected, in order to be gain liberation from deceit, truthfulness must be practiced. Stepping back from this limitation, the ftrst aspect of honesty is telling the truth to others. 429 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 42, p 482 430 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 220 123 of human capacity. Gandhian humility, however, was also used to convince satyagrahis that human power was worthless in comparison to god's power. My ethical system's lack of a god makes the extent of Gandhian humility less applicable; without a god increased humility does allow one to be awed by god's powers. From this, I do not see the value in thinking of individuals as "humble as dust" without a god figure.431 Thus, the second aspect of honesty This brings me to courage, the parallel virtue to Gandhian fearlessness. The comparison between Gandhi and Socrates shows the extraordinary value of gaining fearlessness for pursuing moral development. From this I draw the importance of not being afraid of death, loss of property, and loss of honor. I depart from from Gandhian thought during the Salt Campaign, however, by describing courage as complete fearlessness. This system would not advocate fearing god or one's emotions. I advocate not fearing god because there is no god in this system. I advocate 43 1 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of lndia, 1969. Print. volume 43, p 98 not fearing emotions because I have shifted the relationship with oneself away from devaluation to honest exploration of limitations and short-comings in an absence of god. Gandhi believed it was essential that, with a god, satyagrahis be afraid of their desires to treat them as foes.432 His logic was that by treating these as foes we would seek to fight them and overcome them. My logic is that if we wish to be honest about our limitations, it is not possible to fear our emotions. Brahmacharya, Non-possession, and Freedom One of biggest divergences between Gandhi and Socrates stems from the relationship to one's desires. Following Gandhi's model, my system does not propose that reason can control the desires. Freedom is the virtue that is parallel to Gandhian brahmacharya and non-possession because it enable one to not be ensnared by uncontrollable desire; it gives one the freedom to choose which desires need to be acted upon. The cultivation of freedom enables one to determine what what is necessary to live well and what is preventing one from that pursuit. In order to explore this question, each person needs to test what he or she can do without. This includes what one needs for food, material well being, and all other desires. In this sense, complete freedom would suggest that one has complete control over which desires to act upon. While this cannot be achieved in this lifetime, increased freedom enables one to have get additional choices about 432 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 115 should first try to not harm others either through use of physical force, hurtful language, or negative thoughts. While no-harming is necessary for compassion it is not sufficient. Like Gandhian ahimsa love and care is also required the way we act towards others. This requires the work of caring not only for those that near to one, but those that might be or adversaries or have harmed one. Furthermore, loving others means working with a compassionate outlook to try to show them when they are causing harm. This interacts with the virtue of honesty, by recognizing that it is possible in the process of trying to convert the other person, the seeker might be convinced of his or her shortcoming. 433 Swadeshi and Community I have chosen the virtue of community as a parallel to swadeshi. The Gandhian notion of swadeshi during the Salt Campaign was primarily 433 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry oflnfonnation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. volume 44, p 57-58 understood as a way to honor one's community, especially through economic and political boycott of British goods. I turn to the campaign in South Africa for an understanding of how to frame this in a less economic lens. Here we we see that was rooted in a notion of communal self-reliance and self­dependence.434 From this I glean two aspects of the virtue of community: recognition of the value of being in community and the practice of Gandhi's recognition of how connected we are with our community.435 The important point here is that the virtue of community cannot be a personal exercise done in isolation. Therefore, to practice this virtue the individuals involved must support each other. The second aspect requires that we consciously seek to cultivate this community by supporting it and building it economically, politically, and socially as was shown by Gandhi's actions during both campaigns. Conclusion This analysis set out to glean some insights from Gandhi on how living well in America can incorporate political activism. Through the comparison with Socrates I have been able to both understand the Gandhian framework, 434 Gandhi, Mohandas K. Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1969. Print. Volume 7, p213 435 Parekh, Bhikhu C. Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination. Notre Dame, IN: University ofNotre Dame, 1989. Print. p 57 If this system remains just the conclusion of my thesis it will be shown to be a pedantic exercise that has developed my ability to reason, write, and organize my thoughts. If, however, I explore what extent this ethical system can be actualized in my life, then I believe this analysis will have served a much Bibliography: Berger, Harry, Jr. "Levels of Discourse in Plato's Dialogues." Literature and · the Question of Philosophy. Ed. Anthony J. Cascardi. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1987. 75-100. Print. Bilgrami, Akeel. "Gandhi's integrity." Raritan 21.2 (20 11 ): 48-67. Print. Bussanich, John, and Nicholas D. Smith, eds. The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. London: Continuum, 20 13. Print. Chatterjee, Margaret. 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